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UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE
DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

THE

QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION.

VOL. VII.

JANUARY— APRIL.

LONDON:
CHARLES KNIGHT, 22, LUDGATE STREET;

SOLD ALSO BT

BRILBY, KNOTT, AND BBILBT, BIRICINOHAM ; W. P. WAKBMAK, DUBLIN ; OLITBR

AND BOYD, BDINBUliaH ; BADfBS AND CO., UtBDS ; WILLMBR AND SMITH,

LIYBRPOOL ; AND 8TBPBBN80N, HI7LL.

1834.

LONDON :
Printed by William Clowxs,
Duke-itreet, Lambeth.

CONTENTS OF NO. XIII

Schools at Menars ; . .

Page
1

Education of Natives in India ....

English Boarding-Schools . .

Physical Studies in Oxford ....

University of London .

Public Instruction . . .

Public Instruction in Great Britain . .

On the Study of Geography ....

National Instruction in the Canton oi Zurich

REVIEWS.

Geometry without Axioms • • . .

105

Buttman*s Greek Grammar . ^ • .

115

Ritchie*s Principles of Geometry

118

New Edition of Herodotus

125

Hebrew Literature .....

134

Miscellaneous: — Foreign Intelligence •

150

u British • • . •

181

NOTICE.

Tub Committee of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge are desirous of explaining the degree of superintend-
ence which they think that they ought to exercise with respect to
this publication.

It will of course he their duty not to sanction anything incon-
sistent with the general principles of the Society. Subject, however,
to this general superintendence, they feel that the objects of the
Society will be better forwarded by placing before the readers of
this work the sentiments of able and liberal men, and thus enabling
them to form their own conclusions, as well from the difference as
from the agreement of the writers, than by proposing to them, as
if from authority, any fixed rule of judgment, or one uniform set of
opinions. It would also be inconsistent with the respect which the
Committee entertain for the persons engaged in the preparation of
these papers, were they to require them strictly to submit their
own opinions to any rule that should be prescribed to them. If,
therefore, the general effect of a paper be favourable to the objects
of the Society, the Committee will feel themselves at liberty to
direct its publication : the details must be the author^s alone, and
the opinions expressed on each particular question must be con-
sidered as his, and not those of the Committee. As they do not
profess to make themselves answerable for the details of each par*
ticular essay, they cannot, of course, undertake for the exact con-
formity of the representations which different authors may make of
the same facts ; nor, indeed, do they, for the reasons already given,
feel that such conformity is requisite.

By Order of the Committee,

Thomas Coat£S, Secretary.

CONTENTS OF NO. XIV.

Paftc

The Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Damb, al Deneulv 1 93

Rugby School .....

234

German High Sehoofo .....

249

On Greographical and Statistical Knowledge

254

Society for Suppwuion of Juvenile Vagrancy .

272

Early Education .....

281

Medical Edtication in Dublin ....

299

REVIEWS.

Description of Ancient Italy ....

311

Elementary Works by M. Quetelet

347

Miscellaneous:— Foreign Intelligence •

350

*, British • . . ,

367

Index

384

2 Schools at Menars.

At the ^ Prytaneum/ which first claims our attention, the
principal object contemplated is to offer to all, at an easy rate»
the acquisition of sound scientific and classical knowledge^ pro-
portional to the wants of each ; and to unite to this a system
of good religious and moral instruction ; and these not super-
ficially or technically, a knowledge of words with an ignorance
of things^ but thoroughly and completely. These objects,
in the details of the system, have been admirably preserved,
and as far as we were able to judge of an engine so lately
put in motion, we can bear witness thaJb the prcwHice proves
the goodness of the theory. We will endeavour to give some
account of the discipline of which we speak so favourably :
our account must needs be imperfect ; but even if complete
in its details, it might fail to impress the minds of others with
the same opinions as ourselves, for it is difficult to present
such a picture of an institution as shall prove itself genuine
in all its parts. So much depends upon the adherence to the
rules laiu down, so much more upon the spirit in which
they are understood, — on the disposition^ the intelligence,
the mental character of the administrators, that however fair
the outline may be, and however brilliant the colouring, we
may yet have scruples in pledging ourselves to approbation.
We may fear the iufluence of some ill-assorted element^
temper, unsteadiness, or p^irtiality, which may blight the
whole scheme. The most that can be done is to state what
is taught, and hwv it is taught ^ and in tbi» latter point it
is that the institution merits regard, because the object ia
not to produce effect sparkling, though temporary, but
knowledge solid and durable. The genius of Locke and
Pestalozzi have been invoked successfully: it is not consi-
dered sufficient that the boy should be taught, but be must
likewise learn ; the application, therefore, is made^ not to
the ear, to the power of memory over sounds, but to the
reason. Whatever is really to be learned must be under<*
stood, and we know that under no other conditions can
learning become knowledge. When education consists m
stamping opinions on the youthful mind, the very objects of
the sacred work are frustrated ; the end to be kept in view
is the development of principles^ for these alone are the
guides to knowledge and the motives to action which can with
confidence be relied upon. In the different studies at Menara,
no object, however simple, is passed over ; an account of each
is required. By a continual comparison of similarity and
analogy^ which must be for ever at work in the mind, the
boy is forced to make for himself a classification, whicb>
while it banishes all confusion of thought, teaches him ai

Sckoob at Menars. 8

the same time both his acquirements and deficiencies : it
enables him to perceive and appreciate the different bearings
which one subject has on another, all relative parts of one
great whole ; and it teaches him to advance surely, though
slowly, in the developement of those faculties, and in the
exercise of those feelings with which God has endowed him.

The length of time required for completing the whole
course of proposed instruction is eight years ; but as this
course is divided into three distinct periods, each embracing
studies complete in themselves, it is evident that each boy
will be governed in this respect by the state of his acquire-
ments when he enters, and by the degree to which it is his
design that they should be extended. Besides this, every
course is gone over twice before the new one is commenced,
and thus an opportunity of departure is offered when this re-
newal takes place. By the distribution of the courses, a com-
bination is gained of the advantages of a regular systematic
and general education, as well as of one peculiar and special.
The evils to which most systems are subject, and our own in
England more than all, is, that throughout the whole course
there is but one line of study for all, whatever may be the
different professions for which boys su-e intended : the soldier
and the divine^^ the chemist and the lawyer^ the physician
and the banker, are all prepared in the same manner ; but at
Menars, by a distribution of three courses, this difficulty is
avoided, and one or the other of tlie two latter courses, for
the first is merely elementary, may be selected according to
the wants or prospects of the youth.

The following is the order of the divisions. The first
course embraces two, the others, three years each.

These two years of the first course are employed in learn-
ing reading, writing, arithmetic, geometry, and the elements
of drawing.

The three years of the second course are devoted to lan-
guages, to general history, and the elements of mathematics.
The languages taught are, of course, Latin and Greek, with
German, English, Italian, and Spanish.

The studies of the third course comprehend the history
of France, mathematics, chemistry^ natural philosophy, poli-
tical economy, general literature, philosophy, and general
industry. The choice of languages is left to the views which
the scholars or their parents have of what will be most useful
to them. Religious instruction is given twice a- week,
Thursday and Sunday ; and in order that this may be of a
nature adequate to its importance, great care has been taken
that the minister intrusted with this charge should be one

4 Schools at Menars,

of acknowledged talent and repute. It was intended in the
course of last summer to appoint a minister of the church of
England, to perform the same duty for our fellow-country-
men : for, although their number at the Prytaneum is at pre-
sent but small, yet there is promise of increase ; and, at all
events, it is foreign to the intentions of the institution that
this number, be it great or small, should be left unprovided
in its worship or religious instruction, and be wanting in
what many consider so essential an element of education.

Such are the advantages which Menars holds out — a com-
plete literary and scientific education ; or either the one or
the other, according to individual wants. Many of the most
distinguished scholars of France have interested themselves in
its success, and have given their earnest approbation of its
proceedings. The names of De Barante, JLacretelle, Laro-
migui^re, and Andrieux, without mentioning any others,
attest the opinion of the enlightened part of France in its
favour. The method of teaching is that of mutual instruc-
tion. The classes are subdivided into eights, over each of
which there is a monitor. These are under the direction of
professors, and the whole is presided over by M. Xavier
8auriac, formerly principal of the college of Montauban, one
in whom is found the happy combination pf a cultivated
mind, with a temper and energy which an office so responsible
demands.

If we regard the spot where the Prytaneum is situated,
none can appear more advantageous. Placed in one of the
most beautiful parts of France, close to a road which connects
Bourdeaux with Paris, on the banks of a river, which, by
the castles reflected in its waters, presents a mirror of the
most interesting portion of that country's history, surrounded
by a park which is always open to its inmates for recreation^
this infant establishment is daily acquiring fresh vigour ; and
by the advantages morale intellectual^ and indeed physical,
(for neither the wholesomeness of the arrangements, nor the
healthiness of the situation, should be forgotten,) which it
holds out, it will soon have to extend its borders, and
open wider its gates to receive the children of the stranger
as well as of the native.

The next point of consequence is the discipline. Occu-
pation is marked out and rigorously adhered to throughout
the whole day. The boys are up at half-past five o'clock,
attend prayers at six, prepare their lessons {etude) till a
quarter past seven, when they breakfast. After this the first
division is employed till a quarter past nine in mutual in-
struction ; the second in language ; and the third in French

Schools at Menars. 5

history, mathematics, or general literature ; after which they
all have an hour for fencing, gymnastics^ and other exercises.
To this succeeds the preparation of lessons for the first division^
language for the second, and political economy or natural
philosophy for the third. At twelve they dine. After dinner
they have military exercises for an hour. At half-past one^
mutual instruction for the first division; languages for the
second ; and for the third, philosophy, chemistry, or mathe-
matics. All the divisions have exercises in fencing and gym-
nastics, from three to four o'clock : after which, till half-past
five, the first division prepare lessons, the second are at lan-
guage, and the third at natural history or mathematics.
From six to eight o'clock, the two first divisions study French,
and the third, language ; they then sup : meet at prayers at
half-past eight, go to bed at nine, and at half-past nine the
candles are all out.

On Sundays, festivals, and Thursdays, bathing in the sum-
mer, and a more particular attention to cleanliness, religious
instruction, and church service, take place of the usual occu-
pations. At meals, the same rule of subdivision by eight is
observed in all the classes. Each monitor presides at his
table, and sees that all is conducted with that regard to pro-
priety and good manners which are due from one to another.
The only other particular to be mentioned, is with regard to
the sleeping apartments : these are large airy dormitories,
perfectly clean, neat and cheerful ; the rooms are long, and of
a sufficient width, lighted on both sides by windows ; and the
beds are arranged at convenient distances, and allow room
for each boy to have his table and washing-stand by the side,
and all the other comforts which they can require.

Such is the institution in its outward form. The terms
annually, including washing, medical attendance, and every
other extra, are 40/., to be paid quarterly, and in advance.
Each boy is required to bring a certain number of things
with him ; but as some of these, viz., dress and furniture, are
all uniform, the usual and most convenient mode pursued, is
the additional payment of 20/. the first year, for the purchase
at the Prytaneum of the necessary supply ^ and in this sum
will likewise be included all repairs and renewals, which iu
the subsequent years may be required. The list is as fol-
lows: — winter full dress suit, undress, summer full dress, un-
dress, cap, hat, twelve shirts, twelve pair of stockings, twelve
pocket handkerchiefs, six black neckcloths, two pair of shoes,
six pair of drawers, six cotton caps, two linen trowsers, twelve
towels, fork and spoon, combs and brushes, iron bed, matrass,
woollen counterpane, cotton, carpet, washing things, &c. &c.

Schoob at Menan.

The mention of particulars even so minute as the above,
is not without its use, since it shews, while the author of the
institution prescribes cleanliness, what his notions are on
that subject. The attention which is given to everything
which can beneficially influence, the mind, and superinduce
habits of self-respect and proper feeling, is unremitting, and
is indeed most admirable ; for, what is it but the minutifls
of life which make life what it is ? and in studying well these
minutise, which to the unreflecting appear trifling and insig-
nificant, in observing the connexion between them, and the
results they are calculated to produce, in acting upon the
conviction that there is not one, even the least of them,
without its influence, consists one of the important ele*
ments of education.

The School of Arts and Trades is entirely separated, and
indeed at some little distance from the Prytaneum. It is
not so extensive as the former, since the number of scholars
is limited to a hundred ; four trades only are taught. For
the purposes of common elementary education there pre-
viously existed a very adequate school. Boys are received
at the Arts and Trades at thirteen years old, and remain for
the space of four years. This school has the benefit of adding
to the advantages of a common school those of an apprentice-
ship, with this incalculable difference, viz., that the moral and
religious training which it is seldom the lot of apprentices to
experience, are anxiously enforced. Indeed, the principles
upon which it is conducted are the same as those of the
Prytaneum, as they are both the work of one mind. The
same desire which is shown towards the welfare of the richer
is shown likewise towards the poorer boys : and to them is
offered such an education as is hoped may be useful, not
only in making them intelligent as well as industrious, but
also respectable and virtuous ; that they may be taught to
become both good workmen and good citizens. In order to
prevent industry itself from becoming useless if not perni-
cious, a knowledge of the social duties should form part of
the instruction of that as well as of all other classes of society ;
and unless the labourer be taught the nature of the social
system and the duties which it imposes on him, it is im-
possible for him to judge what are the claims which society
has upon him, or even that it has any at all. The means of
education are too often taken for education itself ; and
although this is true with respect to the education of ^all
classes more or less, its consequences are more fatal to the
poor. Enlarged society, with its interchange of thought
and collision of opinion, with its rules and axioms impera-

Schools at Menars. 7

iirely hid doivn und demanding an obedience, becomes a
school of dUscipline from which the rich may gather pru*
dence» and must occasionally learn forbearance. But from a
variety of circumstances incidental to poverty the social
check is less in action ; the peasant labouring for his daily
bread feels himself dependent but on himself for his subsist-
ence — all that he receives from society is unperceived — the
word itself, perhaps, serves only to convey to his mind that
class of people which is richer than himself, and instead of
being conscious that it is a whole of which he forms a part,
he looks upon it as his greatest enemy.

Unless we wish to make the poor an instrument in the
hand of every knave to the filling up the measure of their
own misery, and to the keeping the social fabric continually
tottering to its base, it is absolutely necessary to join a know-
ledge of their duties and their true condition to the other
branches of the education of the poor.

Four trades are taught in the school at Menars : that of
cartwright, saddler, joiner, and blacksmith. The choice of
each depends on the parents, and the expenses incicient to
each are different ; but to all is given a uniform instruction
in arithmetic, geometry, and mechanics. As to the mode in
which these are taught, it is sufficient to remark that the
method laid down by M. Dupin is the one pursued. The
director of the Arts and Trades is M. Aurioust Mestivier,
formerly captain in the artillery, and of the Polytechnic
School, who, as well as the teachers under his direction, are
'persons of distinguished ability*

Of the four years' course the first is employed in acquiring
a knowledge of the elements of the trade selected, and in
learning reading, writing, and arithmetic ; the second year
comprises (besides the tnide, which of course is a principal
consideration throughout the whole term) drawing, particu-
larly with regard to decoration, and geometry. The third
year includes some notion of mechanics, descriptive geometry,
and linear drawing ; and in the fourth year the results of the
whole are examined with a view to their perfection.

It has been already said that the expense incident to the
different trades is different, and Uiis arises from the following
arrangement. The annual charge of each is 14/. ; but by at-
tention and industry on the boy's part this may be consider-
^ly reduced. Whenever the pupil has acquired sufficient
skiU to give his work any value, this work will be sold for
bis advantage, after the charge for materials furnished him
shall have been deducted. A calculation has been made of
the leUurns of such work, and they are proved by expeneuce

8 Schools at Menars.

to be such as to diminish the yearly expense very consider-*
ably. The estimated average for the four years is, for the
cartwrighti 51, 4s. 2(L ; for the joiner, 6/. I5s. 7^d, ; for the
blacksmith, Jl* 8^* 1^^*; and for the saddler 7/- 17^* lici*
And in order to ensure the continuance of a boy for the full
time, the premature withdrawal of any one will subject the
parents to a fine equal to the charge of a half year's school-
ing. A written contract to this effect is made between the
parties at the boy's admission, and the efficiency of this con-
tract is secured by its being cognizable by the legal tribunals.

The dress of the Arts and Trades is, like that of the Pry-
taneum, uniform. For working days a complete suit, coloured
neckcloth, and cap ; for Sundays and festivals a round jacket
of a certain form, blue trowsers for winter, white for summer,
and a black stock ; a round glazed hat, two white shirts, two
coloured, four coloured handkerchiefs, four pair of drawers,
three cotton caps, three towels, two pair of laced boots, fork,
spoon, &c., two pair of sheets, iron bed. A register is like-
wise required to be provided by each boy, that he may keep
an exact account of the produce of his own labour as well as
the amount of the materials which have been furnished by
him.

The interior regulations are in no way behind those of the
Prytaneum ; the dormitory, different of course in the quality
of the furniture, is similar in its neatness and wholesomeness.
The dinners are equally well arranged ; the food excellent
and abundant ; all that can be suggested for the health and
well-being of its inmates has been anxiously provided. In
case of illness the medical advice in attendance at the Pry-
taneum is gratuitously afforded.

A medal is annually bestowed upon the best workman in
each department, and all the creditable specimens which
have been executed are sent every spring to the fair at Blois.
This indeed is the chief opportunity which occurs for the
sale of their labours.

Such is the institution of Menars : all that we %vould add
are a few words on its resources and its author. The con-
ception and execution of the plan are to be entirely attributed
to the Prince Joseph of Chimay, a Belgian by birth, of the
family of Caraman, but now residing in France, at the
chateau of Menars, an estate of the family. Independently
of the valuable uses to which the domain at present contri-
butes, the spot is not without some interest as one chosen by
the celebrated Pompadour for her abode, for whom her royal
lover dismantled part of the chateau of Blois, and built the
mansion which now stands. There, at Menars, the Prince,

Schools at Mmars. 9

with his family, forming a strange contrast with the first
possessors^ passes the greatest part of the year, and devotes
himself to the superintendence and upholding of that which
his munificence and benevolence have created.

Before the Belgian revolution this nobleman was attached
to the Dutch embassy at London, and whilst here he em-
ployed himself in accurately observing all those outward
elements of our wealth, and much more in studying carefully
the inner and more complicated nature of our moral and in-
tellectual existence. It seems that immediately on his set<"
tling in France he commenced the undertaking now accom-
plished, the value of which must depend upon the want that
is felt for it ; and this want is sufficiently proved by the exer-
tions which the French government have been and are
making, with the aid of M. Cousin, to the same purpose.
To all friends of France who feel the deficiencies of education
in that country, its future prospects must be most cheering ;
and it is to be fervently hoped that the exertions of the
ministry and those of private individuals will soon be the
cause of sound and ennobling principles taking root in a soil
which has been so laboriously prepared for them.

The Prytaneum has been erected at the sole expense
and under the single superintendence of the individual we
have mentioned ; and so far from speculation on the future
prospect of interest entering into his plan, the annual receipts
do not yet meet the outgoings, nor until the numbers be
considerably increased will this be the case. But even then,
an increase of pupils will be likewise a source of increased
expense, for additional buildings will be required, and what-
ever may conduce to the advantage of so many students will
be added ; as an instance of which we may mention the pro-
bable erection of a riding-school. The Prytaneum stands
close adjoining to the gate of the chateau ; and as the only
play-ground beyond the walls of the Prytaneum is the park,
and the only entrance to the park through the courts of the
chateau, the two establishments may in some respects be
said to be connected by the same domestic ties — for nothing
can conduce more to the encouragement of such domestic
associations, than the enjoyment of the same spot for the
purpose of recreation aad amusement.

There is no day that the Prince is not among the pupils ;
few that the Princess is not there likewise. The terms of
confidence and regard which exist on both sides are highly
striking; and this desirable feeling, which improves the
moral character of both superior and inferior, exists not only
between the Prince and the pupils, but equally between them

10 Sckoob ai Mmttn.

and the director and profenora. A aenaible and a rational
discipline is invariably exerted ; and this combination of
discipline and confidence is that in which we, in most of our
systems of education, must acknowledge our deficiency : the
distance which is so often kept up between teacher and pupil
produces restraint on the one side, reserve on the other,
and frequently mutual dislike. But at Menars there is no
such separation ; the two parties seem unconscious that they
could have separate interests or separate privileges, of which
they could be mutually jealous ; the repulsive power is no
way in force. In the park, during play hours^ the presence
of any, either of the family or of the teachers, throws no
check on what is going forward. We have witnessed this
with the highest interest In fact, with respect to this in*
stitution, it is the spirit visible whether in school or out of it,
this cheerful spirit of well being, which persuaded us, more
than all its rules and regulations, that a true system of
education had been put into operation : as an illustration, in
some degree, of this may be mentioned an observation of one
of the boys to us, that if any of them were not happy there
it would be difficult to know where they could be happy ;
^ for,' he added, ^ the Prince and M. Sauriac (the director)
do all they can to make us so.'

We do not often see a man of that situation and age of
life^ — for the Prince is not twenty-six — who has so thoroughly
extricated himself from the temptations incident to such a
condition (and that he had done so while living in the midst of
the dissipation of London, Brussels, &c. is evident, by his
mind being sufficiently matured to put such a plan into exe-
cution immediately ou his having the opportunity), as to live
so truly using the world but not abusing it $ for he is no
recluse of whom we are speaking, but one always living in
the world, of domestic and active habits, performing all the
duties of relatiim and neighbour i one who is following the
steps of the highest philosophy, although he would be the
last person to consider himself entitled to such a character*

Our conviction of the utility of the Prince of Chimay's
labours, and our admiration of the motives which have in-
duced him to conceive, as well as the intelligence which has
enabled him to execute such a plan, appear to us sufficient
reasons for presenting this slight sketch to the public.

( 11 )

EDUCATION OF NATIVES IN INDIA*.

It appears that, from an early period in the history of British
India> the Protestant mission^ conducted successively by
Messrs. Zeigenbald, Gericke, Kiernander, and Schwartz^
under the patronage of the Society for promoting Christian
Knowledge^ had schools at Madras, Cuddalore» Tanjore, and
Trichinopoly, in which they instructed the natives, and in
aid of which they obtained occasional grants of money from
the local governments. Permission to receive, free of freight,
from the Society in England, various supplies in aid of these
undertakings, was always given by the Court of Directors of
the EUist India Company.

A permanent annual grant was authorized by the Directors
in 17^7) towards the support of three schools, which had
previously been established with the sanction of the respective
rajahs at Tanjore, Ramenedaperam, and Shevagunga. Each
of these grants amounted to 250 pagodas (100/. sterling), and
the schools were placed under the direction of Mr. Schwartn.
By a further direction of the Court, an allowance of equal
amount was authorized in favour of any other schools that
might be opened for the same purpose^

In the beginning of 1812, a Sunday-school was established
at the suggestion of the military chaplain, and supported by
means of the contributions of several European residents at
the presidency of Madras, The object of this school was to
afford elementary instruction to the half-caste and native
children of the military and oiliers resident there. The
object being approved by the government, an endowment of
300 pagodas (120L sterling) per annum was granted for the
support of the school. The mode of tuition adopted was that
known in England as the Bell or Lancasterian system, but
which originated on the Malabar coast more than two cen-
turies ago.

The English chaplain at Palamcottah having established
two free schools, one at Palamcottah, and the other at
Tinnevelly, under the auspices of the Madras correspond-
ing Committee of the Church Missionary Society, solicited
pecuniary aid from the goveniment for their support. This
application did not meet with a favourable consideration by
the authorities of Madras, in consequence of the plan of
instruction which had been adopted being thought likely to
offend the prejudices of the natives. It does not appear that
this apprehension was well founded, since the schools were
attended by children of all castes, without any alarm being

* Continued from Not XIL

12 Education of Natives in India,

excited in the minds of the natives^ although some of the
books used for instruction were specially designed to teach
Christianity, such as the New Testament, Seltare's History
of the Bible, and the Psalter. Reading, writing, arithmetic,
and English grammar were taught in these schools, under
the immediate superintendence of the founder.

Allusion has already been made in the last number of this
Journal (No. XII. p. 261) to the efforts made by the late
Sir Thomas Munro, when Governor of Madras^ in order to
diffuse the benefits of education among the native population
of India. That enlightened administrator recorded a minute
with this view, in the revenue proceedings of the presidency,
under date the 2nd July, 1822, in which he recommends that
the best information should be obtained of tlie actual state of
education in its various branches among the native inhabitants
of the provinces.

In furtherance of this recommendation, a circular letter
was addressed to the several collectors, requiring them to
furnish, for the information of the government, lists of schools
established within their several collectorates, specifying the
number of scholars, both male and female, and the various
castes to which they belonged in each of the schools, accom-
panied by a return of the population of the several districts.
This information was to be accompanied by many further
particulars respecting the mode of instruction, the titles of
the books used, with statements of the expenses incurred,
and the sources whence they were defrayed. In requiring
information to be given concerning colleges or other institu-
tions for teaching theology, law, astronomy, &c.^ Sir Thomas
Munro remarks, —

' These sciences are usually taught privately, without fee or
reward, by individuals, to a few scholars or disciples ; but there are
also some instances in which the native governments have granted
allowances in money and land for the maintenance of the teachers.'

* In some districts,' he adds, ' reading and writing are confined
almost entirely to Brahmins and the mercantile class ; in some they
extend to other classes, and are pretty general among the potails
(the principal people) of villages, and the more considerable ryots.
To the women of Brahmins and of Hindoos in general they are un-
known, because the knowledge of them is prohibited and regarded
as unbecoming of the modesty of the seX; and fit only for public
dancers. But among the women of Rujbundah and some other
tribes of Hindoos, who seem to have no prejudice of this kind, they
are generally taught. The prohibition against women learning to
read is probably, from various causes, much less attended to in
some districts than in others ; the mixed and impure castes seldom
learn to read.

Education of Natives in India. 13

' It is not my intention,' said Sir Thomas, ' to recommend any
interference whatever in the native schools. Everything of this
kind ought to be carefully avoided, and the people should be left
to manage their schools in their own way. All that we ought to
do is to facilitate the operations of these schools by restoring any
funds that may have been diverted from them, and perhaps granting
additional ones» when it may appear advisable/

Some years elapsed from the time when these instructions
were given^ before the Madras government was enabled to
forward to the Court of Directors the several returns made
by the collectors, so inefficiently were the benevolent inten-
tions of Sir Thomas M unro towards the natives seconded at
that time by the different functionaries throughout the pre-
sidency. The Revenue Board took time to deliberate upon
these returns, and the government a still longer time^ before
it was determined to report them to the Court of Directors.
These returns were accompanied by an abstract^ of which
the following is a summary : —

* The schools now existing in the country are for the most part
supported by the payments of the people who send their children to
them for instruction, the rate of payment for each scholar varying
in different districts, and according to the different circumstances
of the parents of the pupils, from one anna to four rupees per
mensem ; the ordinary rate among the poorer classes appearing to
be generally about four annas (or the fourth part of a rupee — ^about
sixpence), and seldom to exceed half a rupee.

' There are endowments for the support of schools only in the
following districts : —

' Rajahmundry, — ^There are in this district sixty-nine teachers of
the sciences, who possess endowments in land, and thirteen who
enjoy allowances in money granted by former Zamindars.

* NeUore. — In this district, certain individuals. Brahmins and
Mussulmans, are in possession of allowances in land and money
granted by the Carnatic government for teaching the Vedas, &c.,
and Arabic and Persian respectively, to the amount of 1467 rupees
(about 150/.) per annum.

' Arcot^ Northern Division, — There are in this district twenty-
eight colleges supported by mauniums and marahs, granted by
former governments, yielding 516 rupees per annum, and six
Persian schools maintained at the public expense, at an annual
charge of 1361 rupees.

* Scdem. — ^There are Enaum lands (lands exempted from the
government assessment) in this district, estimated to yield 1109
rupees per annum, which are appropriated to the support of twenty
teachers of theology, &c., and one Mussulman school, which has
land for its support yielding 20 rupees annually.

* Tanjore, — ^There are in this district forty-four schools and
seventy-seven colleges, which are supported by his Highness the

14 JSdmaHm 9fN!aihf€$ m India.

Rajah. There Is no aehool or oolleg^ endowed particularly hj the
British govtrnment ; but the free schools maintained by the miesloB
established in Tanjore are stated bj the oollector to poasesa a
sur rnmau nimm^ the annual value of which ia estimated at 1100
rupees.

* 2VtcAifiofMi3f.-^There are in this district seven schools, which
possess endowments in land to the extent of 46 cawniea* granted by
former governments.

* Malabar. — There is in this district one college supported by the
Zamorin Rajah, which has also some land attached to it."

The collectors of the undermentbned districts made re-
turns to the following effect : —

' SaUm and Coisnbatort. — It is admitted by the collectors of
these districts that public endowments for the advancement of learn-
ing have been diverted from their original purpose, or resumed. In
the former district the value of land so diverted is estimated at
384 rupees, and in the latter at 2208 rupees.

* Bdlary. — The collector of this district submits, that, although
none of the institutions for education at present existing in it derive
support from the state, ** there is no doubt that in former times,
especially under the Hindoo governments, very large grants, both
in money and in land, were issued for the support of learning."

* Canara. — The late principal collector of this district stated
generally, that there are no colleges in Canara for the cultivation of
the abstract sciences, neither are there any fixed schools and masters
to teach them. There is no instance known of any institution of
the above description having ever received support in any shape
from the former government. In Canara, education is conducted
so much in private, that any statement of the number of private
schools, and of the scholars attending them, would be of little or no
use, but, on the contrary, rather fallacious, in forming an estimate
of the proportion of the population receiving instruction.'

The following table gives the result of the information
furnished by the different collectors of the Madras presi-
dency.

BAteatum e/ Niiiivea in India.

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16 Education of Natives in India*

It appears, from this table, that out of a population of
12,5949 193 souls, only 188,650 were receiving instruction,
being in the proportion of 1 to every 66 inhabitants ; and
out of the number of 6,091,593 females, only 4540 were
being taught, the proportion of scholars to the whole num-
ber of female inhabitants being 1 to 1341.

Among the reports from which the particulars of the fore-
going table were obtained, was one from Mr. A. D. Campbell,
the collector of Bellary, from which we shall here give some
extracts^ as it enters very much into the particular modes
employed, and describes the amount of instruction communi-
cated in the native schools of his collectorate.

' The English language is (aught in one school only ; the Tamul
in four; the Persian in 21 ; the M ahratta in 23; the Teloogoo in
226 ; and the Carnataca in 235. Besides these, there are twenty-
three places of instruction attended by Brahmins exclusively, in
which some of the Hindoo sciences, such as theology, astronomy,
logic, and law, are still imperfectly taught in the Sanscrit lang^uage.

' In these places of Sanscrit instruction in the Hindoo sciences,
attended by youths, and often by persons far advanced in life,
education is conducted on a plan entirely different from that pursued
in the schools, in which children are taug^ht reading, writing, and
arithmetic only, in the several vernacular dialects of the country.

* The education of the Hindoo youth generally commences when
they are five years old. On reaching this age, the master and
scholars of the school to which the boy is to be sent are invited to
the house of his parents ; the whole are seated in a circle round an
image of Gufiasee, and the child to be initiated is placed exactly
opposite to it. The schoolmaster sitting by his side, after having
burnt incense and presented offerings, causes the child to repeat a
prayer to Guiiasee, entreating wisdom. He then guides the child
to write with its finger in rice the mystic name of the Deity, and is
dismissed with a present from the parents, according to their ability.
The child next morning commences the great work of his education.

* Some children continue at school only during five years ; the
parents, through poverty or other circumstances, being often obliged
to take them away, and consequently, in such cases, the merest smat-
tering of an education is obtained. Where parents can afford it, and
take a lively interest in the culture of their children's minds, they
not unfrequently continue at school as long as fourteen and fifteen
years.

* The internal routine of duty for each day will be found, with
very few exceptions and little variation, the same in all the schools.
The hour generally for opening school is six o'clock ; the first child
who enters has the name of Saras-wattee, or the goddess of learn-
ing, written upon the palm of his hand as a sign of honour, and on
the hand of the second a cypher is written, to show that he is worthy
of neither praise nor censure ; the third scholar receives a gentle

Education of Natives in India. \J

stripe ; the fourth two ; and every succeeding scholar that comes
an additional one. This custom, as well as the punishments in
native schools, seem of a severe kind. The idle scholar is flogg'ed,
and often suspended by both hands with a pulley to the roof, or
obliged to kneel down and rise incessantly, which is a most painful
and fatiguing, but perhaps a healthy, mode of punishment.

' When the whole are assembled, the scholars, according to their
number and attainments, are divided into several classes, the lower
ones of which are partly under the care of monitors, while the higher
ones are more immediately under the superintendence of the master,
who, at the same time, has his eye upon the whole school. The
number of classes is generally four, and a scholar rises from one to
the other, according to his capacity and progress. The first business
of a child on entering school is to obtain a knowledge of the letters,
which he learns by writing them with his finger on the ground in sand,
and not by pronouncing the alphabet, as among European nations.
When he becomes pretty dexterous in writing with his finger in
sand, he has then the privilege of writing either with an iron style
on cadjan leaves, or with a reed on paper, and sometimes on the
leaves of the Aristolochia Indica, or with a kind of pencil on the
Hulligi or Kedala, which answers the purpose of slates. The two
latter in these districts are the most common. One of these is a
common oblong board, about a foot in width, and three feet in
length ; this boards when planed smooth, has only to be smeared
with a little rice and pulverized charcoal, and it is then fit for use.
The other is made with cloth, first stiffened with rice-water, doubled
into folds resembling a book, and it is then covered with a composi-
tion of charcoal and several gums. The writing on either of these
may be effaced by a wet cloth. The pencil used is called Bultapa,
a kind of white clay substance, somewhat resembling a crayon, with
the exception of being rather harder.

' Having attained a thorough knowledge of the letters, the scholar
next learns to write the compounds, or the manner of embodying
the symbols of the vowels in the consonants, and the formation of
syllables, &c. ; then the names of men^ villages, animals, &c. ; and
lastly arithmetical signs. He then commits to memory an addition
table, and counts from one to one hundred ; he afterwards writes
easy sums in addition and subtraction of money, multiplication, and
the reduction of money, measures, &c. Here great pains are taken
with the scholar in teaching him the fractions of an integer, which
descend, not by tens as in our decimal fractions, but by fours, and
are carried to a great extent. In order that these fractions, together
with the arithmetical tables in addition, multiplication, and the
threefold measure of capacity, weight, and extent, may be rendered
quite familiar to the minds of the scholars, they are made to stand
up twice a day in rows, and repeat the whole after one of the
monitors.

*The other parts of a native education consist in decypherin^
various kinds of hand-writing in public, and other letters which the
schoolmaster collects from dffferent sources ; writing common letters,

Oct., 1833^Jan., 1834. C

18 Sducatian of Natives in

dimwing up forms of agreement, reading fables and legendary taleSf
and committing various kinds of poetry to memory, chiefly with a
view to attain distinctness and clearness in pronunciation, together
with readiness and correctness in reading any kind of composition.

* The whole of the books in the Teloogoo and Caivatic schools,
which are by fiur the most numerous in this district, whether they
treat of religion, amusement, or the principles of these languages,
are in verse, and in a dialect quite distinct from that of conversation
and business. The alphabets of the two dialects are the same, and
he who reads the one can read, but not understand, the other also.
The natives, therefore, read these to them unintelligible books to
acquire the power of reading letters in the common dialect of busi-
ness ; but the poetical is quite different from the prose dialect which
they speak and write, and though they read these books, it is to the
pronunciation of the syllables, not to the meaning or construction of
the words, that they attend. Indeed, few teachers can explain, and
still fewer scholars understand the purport of the numerous books
which they thus learn to repeat from memory. Accordingly, from
studies in which he has spent many a day of laborious, but fruitless
toil, the native scholar gains no improvement, except the exercise of
memory, and the power to read and write on the common bufiiness
of life ; he makes no addition to his stock of useful knowledge, and
acquires no moral impressions. He has spent his youth in reading
syilablea, not words, and on entering into life he meets with hun-
dreds and thousands of words in the common course of reading
books, of the meaning of which be cannot form even the most dis>
tant conjecture.

' The economy with which children are taught to write in the
native schools, and the system by which the more advanced scholars
are caused to teach the less advanced, and at the same time to con-
firm their own knowledge, is certainly admirable, and well deserved
the imitation it has received in England. The chief defects in the
native schools are the nature of the books and learning taught, and
the want of competent masters.

* Such is the state in this district of the various schools in which
reading, writing, and arithmetic, are taught in thjp vernacular dialects
pf the country, as has been always usual in India, by teachers who
are paid by their scholars* Lessons in theology, astronomy, logic,
and law, continue to be given gratuitously, as of ok), by a Tew
learned Brahmins to some of their disciples. But learning, though
it may proudly decline to sell its stores, has never flourished in any
country except under the encouragement of the ruling power.'

We have already noticed the liberality of the East India
Company's Government^ in continuing to the descendants
of the first grantees^ annuities originally paid for the advance-
ment of learning, without requiring the continued performance
of the implied condition of the payments.

'Accordingly,' says Mr. Campbell, 'considerable alienations of
revenue; which formerly did honour to the state by upholding and

Education of Natives in India. 19

encouragiBg learning, have deteriorated under our rule into the
means of supporting ignorance; whilst science, deserted by the
powerful aid she formerly received from government, has often been
reduced to beg her scanty and uncertain meal from the chance
benevolence of charitable individuals.'

The plan of Sir Thomas Munro for providing instruction
for the native population of the presidency, contemplated the
establishment of one central school in each coUectorate, and
subordinate schools in connexion with them ; the whole to be
placed under the control of a Committee of Public Instruction
at Madras, which consisted of four members and a secretary.
A disbursement by this committee of 45,000 rupees per annum,
including the expense of the School Book Society, which will
be noticed hereafter, was authorized by the government
This Committee, with the view of drawing the native popula-
tion with them as far as possible, called upon the several
collectors to forward from each of the provinces one person
to be instructed at Madras, in order that he might subse-
quently superintend the schools in the province. From each
of the twenty-one provinces composing the presidency, one
Mussulman and one Hindoo were sent to Madras, and it wa9
intended to give them instruction in their own language, as
well as in the English tongue, and if possible to add to this some
information upon points connected with science ; but great
difficulty was experienced in this latter part of the scheme
from the want of fit teachers versed in the sciences cultivated
by Europeans. The efforts of this normal school were there-
fore restricted to the imparting of instruction in the lan-
guages of the students, and of the Sanscrit and Arabic lan-
guages respectively, as well as English. The primary object
of the Madras Committee was to lead the natives in the pro-
vinces to unite with them on the subject of education, which
they probably would not have so readily done, had they seen
any reason for considering the institution as aiming at any-
thing very unusual, or as being likely to interfere with their
religious prejudices. The better to secure the very im-
portant end proposed, the selection of students was made
from people well known in the different provinces, and who
had np connexion with the presidency.

The difficulty which was experienced by the Madras Com-
mittee in procuring good teachers, is one not likely to be
surmounted except through the employment of European
professors. On the occasion above mentioned, public ad-
vertisements were put forth inviting the services of qualified
persons, but none presented themselves whose attainments
were satisfactory. One Brahmin was appointed deputy

20 Education of Natives in India.

master^ with the hope of his giving instructions to the scho-
lars in algebra and geography, as well as the rudiments of
geometry ; but his own acquirements were so exceedingly
limited^ that his lectures could not be productive of advan-
tage. Had means for carrying on the plan presented them-
selves, there is reason to conclude that the necessary degree
of liberality would not have been wanting. The annual coat
of the establishments required for carrying the views of Sir
Thomas Munro into efFect, was estimated at the time at
50,000 rupees (about 5000/.), and there is no reason to doubt
that further funds would have been provided, had the prospect
of success for a scheme so much in accordance with the en-
lightened views of the governor been brighter than we have
described. The free access of Europeans to India, which
will be allowed in the course of a few months, when the act
just passed for renewing the Company's chai*ter shall come
into operation, will tend to supply the deficiency of qualified
teachers, and will lead to the importation of British know-
ledge and skill, which we hope will exercise a beneficial
influence on the habits and character of the native inha-
bitants of India. We do not, however, anticipate unmixed
benefit from this measure, as the mere adventurer and the
vicious are generally more fond of leaving their homes than
those possessed of better moral education. With reference
to the consideration of the cost of providing adequate
means of instruction for the natives. Sir Thomas Munro
makes the following remark : * Whatever expense govern-
ment may incur in the education of the people, will be
amply repaid by the improvement of the country ; for the
general diffusion of knowledge is inseparably followed by
more orderly habits, by increasing industry, by a taste for
the comforts of life, by exertion to acquire them, and by
the growing prosperity of the people :' — a remark which
is applicable not alone to India, but to every country and
government in the world, and the justness and value of
which must sooner or later be forced upon the attention of
the rulers and legislators of every civilized community.

A School Book Society, the constitution of which was
similar to that established at Calcutta, as described in our
last Number, was founded at Madras in 1826, at which time
a gratuity of 3000 rupees was contributed by the govern-
ment, and its annual income was fixed at 6000 rupees.

The first secretary to the Committee of Public Instruction
having died, was succeeded in his office by Captain Harkness,
who, in June 1826, addressed a circular letter to the several
government officers in the interior districts explaining the

Education of Natives in India, 21

views of the Committee^ and holding out inducements for
young persons about the age of eighteen years, who should
be respectably connected and distinguished for their natural
talents, to present themselves for instruction at the normal
school at Madras, preparatory to their undertaking the charge
of scholars in the coUectorate schools. The committee on
this occasion further expressed the intention of the govern-
ment to endow, on an average according to their extent and
population, two superior and fifteen subordinate schools for
each of the collectorates ; the former to be called coUectorate
schools, and the latter tehsildary schools. The students at
the normal school were intended solely to superintend the
coUectorate schools ; while the tehsildary teachers M^ere to
be selected by the government officers from among the per-
sons who should be found best qualified for the office in the
several towns of their collectorates. The teachers in the
whole of these schools were to receive small stipends from
government, and were allowed to accept the usual voluntary
fees and presents from the relatives of their scholars ; but
they were to afford gratuitous instruction to such children as
might be considered to require the indulgence by such mem-
bers of the village community as should be selected to super-
intend the schools.

It was proposed to make these schools free for all classes^
and that the master should be enjoined to pay no more atten-
tion to the Brahmin than to the Sudra boy. The principal
inhabitants of each town were solicited to recommend the
master for the appointment, and were given to understand
that nothing was intended to be introduced in the manage-
ment of the schools repugnant to their habits and feelings,
but that their wishes would be consulted on every matter
connected with the plan.

These proposals were wisely intended to give the more
influential among the natives a feeling of personal interest
in the establishments, — a feeling which it was thought
nothing could bC' better calculated to call forth than the
sense of personal importance with which it would be at-
tended.

In January, 1827, the committee made a report to the go-
vernment of the progress which they had made towards the
accomplishment of their important objects. At that time
only ten candidates for the situation of coUectorate teachers
had presented themselves at the normal school from eight
districts — a very small number, considering the inducements
held out. It is probable, however, that the committee's
proposals, with that supineness which is characteristic of

22 Education of Natives in India.

the Hindoos, had not been sufficiently published ; to remedy
this deficiency, translations were at this time made into the
native languages, describing the plan of instruction pursued
at the presidency, and these translations were circulated in
the interior. Eight of the proposed tehsildary schools had
been formed ; viz, three Tamul, three Teloogoo^ and two
Hindoostanee schools, in which 189 scholars were receiving
instruction.

In June following the committee caused a series of works
to be printed in the languages of that part of India^ of a
nature to facilitate the education of the natives, to which
undertaking the assistance of the government was freely
given.

The statements given concerning the native schools in the
Madras presidency, to which we can gain access, do not
reach to a later date than November, 1829 ; and it is much
to be regretted that the plans so carefully laid by the com-
mittee, and so heartily seconded by the local government,
had not at that time been productive of any extensive good.

In the presidency of Bombay, as well as in that of Bengal,
the maintenance of charity schools for general education
appears to have been from an early date among the duties of
the Company's chaplains, for performing which they occa-
•ionally received special gratuities. In 1752 two additional
chaplains were appointed, one at Tellicherry, the other at
Anjengo, with the express intention * that the rising gene-
ration might be instructed in the Protestant religion.' Fifteen
years after Mrs. Eleanor Boyd bequeathed about 6000 rupees
for the endowment of a certain charity school in the town of
Bombay, which had been supported by voluntary subscription
flince the year 1718. Some legal obstacles arose to the appro-
priation of this legacy, and the money was for many years
Allowed to accumulate at interest in the Company's treasury.
This money remained unappropriated till 1824, when the
principal and interest together amounted to 18,831 rupees.
Since that time it has been assigned as an endowment to the
Bombay Education Society, and interest upon the deposit, at
the rate of six per cent, per annum, is paid to that society.

A. voluntary meeting of the inhabitants of Bombay was
held in January, 1815, and a society was then formed under
the designation of the * Society for promoting the Education
of the Poor within the Government of Bombay.' The dona-
tions of the inhabitants to the funds of this society during the
first and second years of its existence were sufficient to create
a fund of 20,000 rupees^ and to provide for an expenditure of
equal amount At the request of the local government^ the

■SdudaHon of Natives in India. 23

court of directors authorized the contribution of 6000 rupees
per annum towards the funds, and this subscription is still re«-
ceived from the Company's treasury. The children instructed
in some of the schools of this society are of a mixed descrip-
tion, consisting of natives and Christians^ the former class
predominating in regard to numbers. The society's report
of 1821-22 states»that there were then 481 scholars receiving
instruction in the schools of the society. The number edu*
cated in these establishments^ and who remained on the 1st
January, 1826, had fallen to 401^ which number was exclu**
sive of the scholars taught in the regimental schools. To-
wards the support of this establishment the Company sub-
scribed, in 1826, 11,37^ rupees.

The Bombay Native School and School-book Society was
formed at Bombay in the year 1823 for the purpose of pro-
moting education among the natives by the establishment
of schools, and by encouraging the compilation of elementary
books in the native languages, as well as by purchasing and
distributing such as might be judged worthy of the coun-
tenance of the society. It is one of the fundamental princi-
ples of the society, embodied in its regulations, to adhere to
the principles and rules on which education is conducted by
the natives themselves : and in consonance with those prin-^
ciples the society adopted the Lancasterian plan of instruc-
tion, and particularly the great principle of that plan, tuiticm
by the scholars themselves, but so modified as to avoid the
evils attendant on the system when brought into operation
in schools conducted wholly by natives.

This society having applied to the governor in council fbr

fecuniary help in furtherance of the plan, obtsdned a grant of
2,720 rupees per annum, together with the present of a
lithographic press, accompanied by a recommendation of
several works for publication, including ^ elementary books
on geometry and on ethics, written in a manner to discoun-
tenance various erroneous practices of the Hindoos.' In the
second year after its formation^ this society received from
twenty-four native gentlemen a contribution of 3550 rupees
towards the erection of buildings in which to carry on its
operations. Up to this time the society had printed and
published several elementary works, comprehending gram*-
knars, dictionaries, and spelling-books of the Mahratta, Goo-
jrattee or Guzerattee, and Hindoostanee languages^ with
some elementary books of arithmetic, geometry, and geo*
graphy, and a few books of fables and tales.

Dr. John Taylor having bequeathed to the Company his
valuable Sanscrit, Mahratta, and Guzerattee library^ it was

34 Education of Natives in Indian

iireaented to the society in the name of the Company aa the
bundation for a native library.

The society's report^ submitted to the government of Bom-
bay in March, 1826, mentions, that twenty-five Mahrattas
and sixteen Goojrattees had been admitted as schoolmasters
since the date of their preceding annual report.

Early in 1824 a special committee of this society was no-
minated to examine into the system of education prevailing
among the natives, and to suggest such improvements as they
should think necessary.

The report made by this committee, which is recorded in
the public proceedings of the presidency, enumerates several
prominent evils in the Indian system of education. The
principal of these are, —

1. A deplorable deficiency of books of instruction, of which
it is stated there are actually none in the vernacular dialects.

2. The want of an easy and efficacious method of imparting
instruction.

3. The want of properly qualified persons as teachers, and

4. The want of funds.

A remedy for the first of these evils can, in the opinion of
the committee, only be found in the exertions of European
gentlemen acquainted with the languages, and capable of
pointhig out to such intelligent natives as may be disposed
to lend their assistance, the proper mode of reducing these
languages to fixed grammatical rules and principles, and of
employing them in the translation of such works from the
English language as may be approved of by the directors.
The class of publications to which they refer is wholly ele-
mentary, embracing language, arithmetic, geography, astro-
nomy, philosophy, history, and ethics.

To remedy the second evil» it is suggested, after making
a comparison of the Malabar system of .tuition with the
more extended and improved plans of Lancaster and Bell,
that the latter should be adopted, as possessing the greatest
advantages. The committee recommended that the study of
the English language should be permitted, and provided for,
as a reward to those pupils who should successfully apply
themselves to the study of the Mahratta and Goojrattee lan-
guages.

To remedy the third evil, it was proposed to assemble at
Bombay a certain number of young men, and to instruct
them in the system of education which it was designed to
establish, with the view of afterwards stationing them as
head masters and superintendents at different places in the
presidency.

Education of Natives in India, 35

The only remedy which the committee could suggest for
the fourth evil^ was an appeal to the liberality of the govern-
ment.

In a minute recorded by Mr. Francis Warden, member of
council at Bombay, on the subject of the report just men-
tioned, that gentleman suggests that great caution may be
found necessary in assisting natives to procure the means of
education, lest they should be led to depend too much on the
government, and too little on their own exertions, for the in-
struction of their children. He recommends that a preference
should be held out in the appointments made to official
situations, in favour of those who might qualify themselves
by their attainments. He further notices with regret the
circumstance, ^ that the range of employment is much con-
tracted by the system which renders so many eligible
situations hereditary, where, whether qualified or not, the
heir succeeds to offices of responsibility and emolument' — an
order of things which destroys all fair competition, and per-
verts the public resources to the support of useless or worse
than useless agents.

The Native School and School-book Society of Bombay
changed its name in 1827 to that of the Bombay Native Edu-
cation Society, under which title we shall notice further on
its more recent progress. From the date of its first esta-
blishment this society has received a monthly allowance of
600 rupees from the funds of the £ast India Company.

In the same year (1824) the Bombay government called
upon the several collectors within the presidency to report, —

The number of village schools in their respective Zillahs.

What proportion they bore to the number of villages.

What allowances were granted to schoolmasters, stating
the sources whence the allowances were paid.

Whether similar provision could be made for schoolmas-
ters in villages then without schools :

With some other matters of minor importance, including
generally such observations as they might find occasion to
offer in connexion with the subject.

At the commencement of 1825, when several of such re-
turns had been transmitted by the revenue and judicial offi-
cers of the district, the governor and council proceeded to
record them. Some of the reports were voluminous, and
contained minute details of the institutions in existence for
promoting education among the natives. Others of them
were less satisfactoiy, and did not properly meet the points of
inquiry proposed by the government. It would seem to be
a very simple thing to make a return upon any subject ac-
cording to the defined wishes of the party by whom it is

Edutaikm of Natives in India.

required ; and yet it will readily be admitted by every one
who has been led to propose a series of questions upon any
given subject to several different individuals, that the answers
are genenilly made in such a manner as to render it very
difficulty if not impossible, to bring the whole together in
any manner at all approaching to uniformity. The following
short analysis of the reports obtained on the occasion just
referred to, is the best that could be drawn out from the
materials communicated : —

Dlatrlcti.

Number of
Schools.

Number of
Scholars.

Villages

that have

Schools.

Total
Villages.

What further Village

Schools might be

established.

Schools.

Probable

number of
Scholars.

Ahmedabad •

2,651

928

1,138

Southern 1
Concan / • *

1,500

Seldom mor*%
than LOO Boys

2,240

Kaira-^District

139

J in each 1
] School, ia f

• « • •

579

[general much
V. less. }

Kaira —

Sudder Station

230

Northern ,
Coucan )' '

390

r 91 to 1

•

Surat ZiUah .

139

3,000

J each
\ 100

655

172

6,000

Surat Town .

136

3,046

I Tillages J

Broach Zillah

Not stated.

« • • •

396

Broach Town

373

. '

Kandeish . .

189

2,022

:2j738

The above abstract affords a vetf toeagre and unsatisfac-
tory view of the means of instruction for the native popula-
tion which existed at that time within the Bombay pre^
sidency.

The attention of the authorities having been thus drawn
to this important subject, some progress appears^ however,
to have been made in extending instruction to the native
children in the Bombay collectorates. In October, 1829,
reports were received detailing the state of education in the
different provinces, and from these reports the following
statement was drawn up of * the schools and scholars In the
different collectorships^ showing the proportion of persons
attending schools to the population :'-^

Education of Nativet in India.

■81 1

1^1

"S*

g|3i

jjl

1 =
"1

■2

Poona ....

366

304

4,651

309

4,917

558, 90^2

1 ID 113

AhmpdnuKKUi >

232

16<1

2,906

16B

3,13S

600,000

159

KandBMh . . .

113

1,010

114

377,321

226

la Guierat—

Surat

188

4,068

190

4,164

254,883

Broach . . . .

■i

967

1,042

238,421

229

Kai»

157

3,034

3,181

444,298

138

127

3,226

3,353

470,729

140

CoOCflllB—

NorlhemCintcuD

188

135

2,490

137

2,678

387,264

144

Southnn Contan

231

6,700

282

6,721

655,776

DarWBi ....

303

4,196

304

4,290

794,142

185

"25"

1,315

1,6B0'33,838J1,705

35,153

4,681,735

1 ia 133

It appears from the foregoing tftble that, in 18^, a territory
which contained a population of 4,681,735 euule subject to
the Eaet India Company, could number only 1705 schools,
in which 35,153 scholars were receiving instruction. Only
25 of these schools, having 13 15 scholars, were maintained at
the government expense; while 1680 schools, attended by
33,838 pupils, were supported by the native inhabitants of
the villages. The proportion which the students bore to the
whole population is seen to be 1 In 133; while in England
I in 16 are receiving education ; in France 1 in SO ; and in
Prussia 1 in about 9^.

The Engineer Institution at Bombay, which is maintained
at t)ie expense of the government, is filled chiefly by native
youths. Of 86 students which it contained in May, 1826,
only 15 were English, and three of these were born in India.
Of the natives, several are the sons of wealthy inhabitants,
and have been allowed to enter the institution, not with any
view to public service, but solely that they may acquire a
knowledge of the arts and scienges taught therein. These
are, the elementary principles of arithmetic and its higher
branches, geometry, trigonometry, and the arts of drawing
and surveying. In addition to the other expenses of the in-
stitution, the Bombay government sanctions the giving of
books and medals as prizes, to the value of ISU rupees an-
Qu^ly. The chief engineer repFesenti the QaUvee, boUi

26 Bducatiwi of Natives in India.

Mahratta and Guzerattee, who are in the same classes with
Europeans^ as studying with equal success, and describes
their progress as having been rapid, and their attainments
considerable; although they labour under a disadvantage
arising from the want of words in the native languages to
convey the ideas expressed by European terms of art^ and
are liable to considerable interruptions and loss of time
occasioned by the numerous holidays observed by the native
population.

In one of his more recent reports, (1826,) the chief en-
gineer represents the students of the first class, six of whom
were English and thirteen natives, as having obtained, in
addition to merely theoretical acquirements, a knowledge of
algebra, as treated in the first volume of Hutton's Course of
Mathematics; and a much more extensive knowledge of
geometry, both practical and theoretical, than was at first
considered necessary, having acquired the whole of what Dr.
Hutton^s work contains on that subject, consisting of the
most useful problems in Euclid. The same is said of men-
suration, in which the students arc reported to be proficients.

The report of the following year (1827) must also be con-
sidered satisfactory. It contains a list of 21 lads, chiefly
natives, educated in the institution, who had passed the
necessary examinations, and had been attached to different
departments of the public service.

The latest date to which our accounts of this institution
reach are of the year 1829. Forty-four of the students were
then quitting the establishment, in order to undertake pro-
fessional employment.

In November, 1825, the Medical Board at Bombay com-
municated to the local government the plan of an institution
to be formed at the presidency for the instruction of natives
in medicine, and to be called a school for native doctors.
This plan was published by the government in general orders
on the 1st of January, 1826, and in its details is similar in
all material respects to the regulations of the school for
native doctors which had been previously formed at Calcutta.

The establishment consisted of a superintendent with three
moonshees to assist in reading and translating from the dif-
ferent languages, and two peons ; the number of students
was fixed at twenty.

In January, 1827, the superintendent submitted to the
government bis first report, containing a statement of his
own proceedings, and of the progress of his pupils.

It appears from this document, that the superintendent
had translated the London Pharmacopoeia into the Mahratta

Education of Natives in India. 29

language, with explanatory remarks, and was in progress
with another elementary work which he expected would,
when completed, form a complete Mabratta dispensatory.
It was proposed to print this work by means of a lithographic
press.

Some introductory works on anatomy and physiology
were also in preparation, as well as a translation into the
Mahratta language of a Sanscrit medical work, the Madhow
Nedam, by one of the pundits engaged in the school, and
said to be a book of repute.

The latest notice we can find relative to this medical
school, is contained in a minute recorded on the 10th Octo-
ber, 1829, by the late Sir John Malcolm, from which we
make the following extract : —

'The expense of the Native Medical Institution is at present
784 rupees per mensem, (about 940Z. per annum.) Its objects are
liberal and wise, being to introduce a knowledge of medicine among
our native subjects according to European principles, by the training
of native doctors for the civil and military branches of the service.
It has been instituted more than three years, and some of the pupils
have made considerable progress ; but though several of them have
been sent to European corps as apprentices, and posted to native
regiments, none are deemed by its able superintendent to be so
complete as he could wish, even in the elementary parts of their
education. This is ascribed by Mr. M*Lennan to his not having
been as yet able to prepare works sufficient for their instruction, nor
does he expect to finish the translations he proposes to make, in less
than two or three years. Fifteen medical treatises have been litho-
graphed, or are nearly ready for the press, and the super! ntendient
counts upon as many more being necessary to complete the original
plan of giving to the natives a library of European medical science.'

' I confess,' says Sir John Malcolm — than whom few men had
better opportunities for forming a correct est! male, of the native cha-
racter and abilities — * I confess I am unconvinced by any argument
I have yet heard, that this class might not be sufficiently educated
in India to perform many minor duties in the service, which now
occupy much of the time of the surgeons from England, and com*
pel government, from increasing expense in this department, to recur
to reductions that may terminate in deteriorating one of the most
essential classes of public servants, and decreasing the reputation
of the medical establishment of India. If our efforts in bringing
forward East Indians and natives to a degree of proficiency in this
line succeed, the ends of economy will be answered by reducing the
number of surgeons from England, and in this view the Native
Medical Institution merits much attention.'

In November, 182/, when Mr. Mountstuart Elphinstone
was about to resign his office of president of the Bombay
Council, and to quit the settlement, the principal native

t^G,

-•^Un, ,

^^:^^^'

^rs.S''-^

^r?=Kc-'

*~-~rrMt T • ""'* ■•■■

*""> «tii(ti., .-^'^18^
•"-■ ■>"«bU,h,

71,;
on ..<

..^ uication of Natives in India.

j^ ...aid produce applied as an endowment for

j>o and prizes, to be called * Sir Edward

J . and Prizes.' With this request the

/* vl, and the Court of Directors having

• proceeding, the money is retained at

in order to carry into effect the wishes

'Mege at Poona, which was projected by

'^ commissioner in the Deccan, and esta-

- of the Bombay government in 1821, has

the Court of Directors, and the annual

•Hng to 15,250 rupees, is defrayed from its

Mient of this college, in 1824, consisted of one

.ossors of the Shastres, three professors of

. n assistants to the professors, and eighty-six

^'posal was made to this college in 1825, with

iiij

ii/j

g if they were willing to have a branch for

u added to the institution, and holding out

. being supplied with a library of elementary

. urks in various departments of the arts, sci-

rrature. This proposal was eagerly accepted,

■ >nts repaired to Bombay to qualify themselves

' ne offices of ^master and assistant. In February,

nine students who had completed their course

M received rewards on quitting the college ; and

'*'K a like distribution was made to eighteen stu-

■!)out to close their studies.

nbay Native Education Society, formerly the
'lool and School-Book Society, reported in May,
twenty-five schoolmasters, eleven Mahrattas, and
uzerattees, were ready to commence their duties
8 in the various schools in the Deccan, Guzerat,
o Concans, having acquired ^ an accurate knowledge
language, and being so far acquainted with the
ches of the mathematics as to entitle them to be
teachers of the second order.' Stations were pro-
em by the society, to which they were sent by the
t. The report of the last of its public meetings to
have access, tells us, that ' its affairs continue to be
according to regulations agreed upon by a committee
, in nearly equal proportions, of Europeans and na-
f its aggregate receipts and disbursements within the
ed to between 70,000 and 80,000 rupees j that it
y on sale more than forty publications in the na-
js, many of them the produce of the Bombay litho-

32 Education of Natives in India.

ffraphic and other pressesy of which former mode of printing
favourable specimens are appended to the reports ; and that
it has under its control and management the several schools
and establishments described in the following paragraphs : —

* In the Central School 250 boys have been through a course of
study in the English language ; 50 have left it with a competent
knowledge of the language, consisting of an acquaintance with
geography, mathematics, and geometry. In Bombay the boys in
the Mahratta School have amoimted to 954, and in Guzerattee to
427. At present there are altogether 56 of the society's schools,
each containing about 60 boys, amounting in the whole to SOOO
boys under a course of education.'

This report contains the following further particulars : —

' Your committee observe, that the boys who have made the
greatest progress in the English schools are the Hindoos ; they are
left longer in the schools by their parents than other boys, who,
though equally intelligent, are more irregular in their attendance.
Few or no Mahommedan boys ever enter the schools.

' Your committee have hitherto experienced some trouble from
the jealousy of the old native schoolmasters, who are unacquainted
with the mode of instruction adopted by the society, and who have
attempted all they can to deter parents from sending their children
to the schools. This spirit of rivalry, from a conviction of the in-
feriority of the old system, and a feeling of shame at opposing the
progress of knowledge, has now happily subsided.'

A committee^ consisting of seven gentlemen, residents in
Prince of Wales* Island^ was formed in November, 1815,
and undertook the establishment of a school for the instruc-
tion of native children in the rudiments of the most useful
branches of education. This school was to be open for the
reception of all children, and the only preference to he shown
in their admission was to be in favour of the most poor and
friendless. Reading, writing, and the common rules of arith-
metic were to be taught, and at a proper age instruction was
to be given in useful mechanical employments. Malays,
Chinese, and Hindoostanees, were to be instructed in their
own languages by appointed teachers, care being taken to
avoid offending the religious prejudices of any party. The
school was opened to children of all ages between four and
fourteen years.

This plan met the concurrence and pecuniary support of
the government, which granted a piece of ground for the
erection of two school-houses, one for boys and the other for
girls. In July, 1824, the school contained 104 boys of dif-
ferent ages, * having sent forth several promising youths, six
of whom had been placed by regular indenture in the public
service/

Education of Natives in India. 33

A further report concerning the _state of this school was
prepared in January^ 1827, which it was proposed to publish
in the Prince of Wales' Island Gazette ; but this publication •
was prevented by the censor of the press, on the ground of
the report containing observations calculated to give offence
to the Catholic inhabitants. At a subsequent examination
of the scholars, which took place in 1829, their progress is
stated to have been highly satisfactory.

Early in 1823, Sir T. Stamford Raffles, with that enlight-
ened zeal by which he was ever actuated for the advance-
ment of knowledge, projected an institution at Singapore,
to consist of a college^ with a library and museum, for the
promotion of Anglo-Chinese literature, and of branch schools,
for instruction in the Chinese and Malayan languages. It
was proposed to incorporate with the college that previously
formed at Malacca by Drs. Milne and Morrison, but it does
not appear that this part of the design has been accomplished.
1'he sum of 15,000 dollars was raised by subscription in aid
of the Singapore institution^ an advantageous allotment of
ground was appropriated for its use near the town, and pre-
viously to his quitting the settlement Sir Stamford Raffles
laid the first stone of the building designed for the college.
A monthly allowance of 300 dollars was at that time assigned
for the support of the institution, which, together with the
grants of land, has been subsequently confirmed by the court
of directors.

It is to be regretted that so promising a commencement
has not been followed by all the benefits proposed by the
founder. The funds at command proved inadequate to the
completion of the building upon the intended scale, so that
its progress was interrupted ; and under these circumstances
the local government restricted the monthly allowance of
300 dollars to one-third of that sum, and further directed its
application towards the support of an establishment for
merely elementary education. The allowance is now 2520
rupees per annum.

The Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca, already alluded to
as having been formed by Drs. Milne and Morrison, was
founded in the year 1818. Its object was the instruction of
Chinese youths in the English language, and in various
branches of European science. It is scarcely to be regretted
that the plan of removing this college to Singapore was not
carried into execution. Malacca has now become a British
settlement, and with a native population of quiet and peace-
able habits, appears well fitted for being the sphere of such
an institution.

OoT.| 1833Wak^ 1834 D

34 Edueatum ofNoHvti tn India.

The main object of this college appears to hare been the
reciprocal interchange of Chinese and European literature
and science, rather than to render it the means of affording
instruction to the unlettered natives, and the record of its
transactions would therefoi*e seem to belong to works specially
devoted to science rather than to this Journal.

Two free schools, one for boys, the other for girls, were
established at Malacca before the settlement came into the
possession of the East India Company. In July, 1887, the
school-rooms were put into a state of repair, and a monthly
sum of 100 dollars was assigned for their support out of
the company'*s funds. These schools were shortly afterwards
placed under the management of a committee, composed of
the principal inhabitants of Malacca. In October, 18299 the
female school contained 50 scholars, who had made an ^ en-
couraging' progress in writing and arithmetic. The boys'
school^ at the same time contained 105 scholars, who were
divided into eight classes. I'he lowest of these were learn-
ing the alphabet and to write on sand. The second class
were taught the Malay and English vocabulary, writing on
slates and cyphering. The third, Murray's spelling-book,
writing on slates, and cyphering. The fourth and fifth,
reading the New Testament, also writing on slates and cy-
phering. The sixth, reading the New Testament, and re-
peating from it daily, also writing on paper ; and the students
had commenced multiplication. The seventh class was learn-
ing trades. Two were apprenticed to printing, three to shoe-
making, and four to tailoring \ they were occupied with their
trades from eight to eleven, and at school from eleven till two,
in writing on paper, reading and spelling from the New Tes«
tament, multiplication, and division.

The head class was composed of monitors; they were
taught writing on paper and English grammar, with other
English exercises.

The following statement, drawn out by the auditor of In-
dian accounts, and dated at the East India House, 13th of
March, 1832, contains a statement of all the sums that have
been applied to the purpose of educating the natives in In-
dia from the year 1813 to the latest period to which the
same can be made out, distinguishing the amount so applied
in each year. The distribution appears to have been all
along very unequally made^ but less so during the last four
years comprehended in the statement, although even now the
sum expended in Bengal amounts to nearly two-thirds of aU
the money contributed ; —

Bengal.

1SI3

j^4.207

1814

11,606

1815

4,405

1816

5,146

1817

5,177

1818

5,211

1819

7,191

1820

5,807

1821

6,882

1822

9,081

1823

6,134

1824

19,970

1825

57,122

1826

21,623

1827

30,077

1S28

22,797

1829

24,663

1830

28,748

Bombay.

TotaL

^442

^5,129

499

12,585

537

5,422

578

6,204

795

6,452

630

6,321

1,270

8,941

1,401

7,688

594

7,956

594

10,155

594

7,208

1.434

21,884

8,961

66,563

5,309

27,412

13,096

45,313

10.064

35,841

9,799

38,076

12,636

44,330

Education of Natives in India, 95

Madras.
J^480

480

480
2,140
2,980
3,614
2,946

The sums thus contributed are considerably beyond what
the company is obliged, by the terms of its charter, to apply
to the purpose of educating the native population of India ;
but when we take into account the extent of territory, and
the number of the inhabitants under British authority in
Hindoostan, the means contributed must appear wholly in-
adequate. The population directly subject to British sway
in the three presidencies is stated in a return, bearing the
same date as the table just given, to amount to 89,581,972 :
consequently the sum contributed towards their education in
1830 amounted to something short of half a farthing for each
individual, and was about the four hundred and ninetieth part
of the revenue collected.

An opinion has often been expressed, that considering the
means by which our empire has been acquired in India, policy
demands that the people should be kept in ignorance, that
from the moment their minds are enlightened, they will seek
to throw off the yoke under which we have brought them,
and that our expulsion from Hindoostan will be inevitable.
To join in this opinion, however, it appears necessary for us
to suppose, that the people, when enlightened, will be wholly
forgetful of the state of degradation from which they have
been raised, and unmindful of their obligations towards those
who will have been instrumental in securing their mental
improvement, and under whom they must feel that they
enjoy a larger measure of happiness and security than fell to
their share during the fluctuating tyrannies to which they
were formerly subjected. It is reasonable to believe, that

86 Education of Natives in India.

in proportion as knowledge is spread among them, they
will become, not only better men, but better subjects, and
less likely to be made the tools of the ambitious and de-
signing. The more intelligence exists among a people, pro-
vided the government is administered with a proper regard
to their true interests, the less desire will there be for change ;
and in particular, while they are increasing the sum of their
knowledge, they will be pleased with themselves and con-
tented with their situation.

For the information we have been able to communicate,
we have been principally indebted to the report made by the
select committee of the House of Commons on the aiTairs
of the East India Company, dated 16th August, 1832, and
to the numerous and very voluminous papers by which it was
accompanied.

ENGLISH BOARDING-SCHOOLS.

In the present state of education in this country, boarding-
schools form a prominent feature. By far the greater
part of the children of the middle and upper classes receive
their early education at boarding-schools. Two circum-
stances have materially contributed to this state of things :
first, the individual wealth of so large a portion of the nation,
by which parents are enabled to procure for their children
boarding-school education, which, if good, is always expen-
sive ; and secondly, the absence of a general system of na-
tional instruction, and consequently a want of public schools,
in every parish or village, which might be considered respec-
table.

Education, such as it is practicable to give at a good
boarding-school, may be made, in our opinion, superior to
any other, even to that received in the house of a parent. In
a civilized state of society, education becomes an art, and
must be studied and practised as such, by persons who make
it their profession. Not many parents have the time and
means for doing this ; and although, with the assistance of
daily teachers, they can instruct their children in the neces-
sary branches of knowledge,* the moral treatment at home
will probably, in most cases, be defective. The present state
of society leaves young people more exposed to external
temptations at home^ than at a well-managed private school.
And how few parents are able constantly to maintain that
composed and rational state of mind^ in which they have

English Boarding-Schools. Zf

only the welfare of their children before their view, unshaken
by personal feelings, either of sudden anger or of extravagant
affection. Most parents are conscious of their weakness in
the moral treatment of their children ; and they often send
them to school with a conviction, that at home they would
only be spoiled. A schoolmaster^ or rather, the educator of
other persons' children, on the other hand, can have suffi-
cient love for his pupils to feel always deeply interested in
their welfare. Such a love is not beyond the powers of human
nature : it is true Christian love ; which in common life we ex-
pect to see particularly exemplified by those who fill the station
of clergymen, and certainly ought to be considered one of the
chief qualifications of a schoolmaster. And though a master
may have the greatest affection for his pupils, the nature of
his situation will, in a great measure, guard him from falling
into errors from too great fondness ; nor will considerations
of pecuniary advantage and responsibility allow him to for-
get himself so far as a provoked parent may sometimes do.

The true relation of a master of a boarding-school to his
pupils, is that of a father ; and as he is the moral guide and
teacher of youth, he is evidently for a time placed above the
parent, who intrusts his children to his care, because he cannot
discharge this duty himself. A private tutor in a family has a
claim to the same high appellation, but his moral influence
over his pupils is often checked and interrupted. Nor can it
be expected that as much knowledge should in general be
imparted, and the mind be equally well informed by one indi-
vidual, as by the master and the several well-selected assis-
tants of a good boarding-school. Teachers who come to the
house for every lesson, can seldom have more interest than
as regards their pay and reputation as teachers. In a private
school the assistants share a part of the same relation to
the pupils with the master ; they are, or ought to be, their
real friends^ their companions, their advisers of more expe-
rience, and their examples in conduct.

In domestic life it frequently happens that the admo-
nitions of an elder brother are received with decided opposi-
tion ; severity on his part either produces a quarrel, or de-
generates into perfect tyranny. If there is no brother, no
elder friend at home to take occasionally the parent's care
upon him, young people naturally bestow their friendship
and confidence on servants, from whom they may receive as-
sistance in their various amusements. It is well that chil-
dren should learn not to attach undue importance to the dis-
tinctions of rank, and a proper sympathy with those who
serve them should be inculcated and encouraged ; biit com*

S8 English Boarding'SehaoU.

panianshipy for obvious reasons, should not be allowed. Yet
it must often happen in many families, especially those in
fashionable life, that a degree of familiarity exists between
children and servants, which considering the general charac-
ter of servants in very wealthy families, cannot be otherwise
than highly prejudicial. A good boarding-school operates
as a check ; the master undertakes a duty which nature has
imposed on the parent, and which, if he cannot fulfil him-
self, he ought to take care to intrust to a proper person.
But in schools a great part of the care which a boy requires
necessarily devolves on assistants, who are less removed
from the boys than the head-master. Assistants being so
situated, are in fact one of the most important elements in
a school, as far as the moral improvement of the boys is
concerned ; and in a well-conducted school, assistants may
be considered as the real friends and companions of the boys.

Having assigned their proper station and duty to masters
of boarding-schools, we will make a few remarks on the
actual state of these establishments. As we speak from per-
sonal experience, we hope we shall not lay ourselves open
to the imputation of presumption in treating of so large
and weighty a matter ; and we trust that the tone in which
our opinions are conveyed will prove that we have no object
in view but the improvement of boarding-school education.
Whoever is acquainted at all with the present general con-
dition of schools must confess, that most of them fall far
short of what they ought to be. It may also be observed that
neither schoolmasters nor assistants seem to enjoy, even
among the parents and friends of their charge, that high
esteem and confidence which their station demands. Few of
their pupils, indeed, would consider them, and behave
towards them, as their real friends aiul their best advisers,
even if they bad any notion that these are the true relations
in which they ought to be regarded. The masters and assis*
tants, on the other hand, have often deserved the neglect
with which they are treated ; yet it appears, we think, rather
inconsistent for parents to intrust their children, and with
them their dearest interests, to persons for whom they feel
so little respect. There are undoubtedly numerous excep-
tions to the character just given of schoolmasters ; but both
among principals and assistants, there are many, as everybody
from his own experience must know, who are more fit for
anything else than the education of youth.

Education being almost entirely left in the hands of private
individuals^ without any public responsibility, has with many
become a mere trade. Persons who cannot get ou in any

English Boarding' Schools, 39

other way become schoolmasters; and hence their chief
object is making money. Their former habits and want of
previous training, render many of them absolutely incapable
of perceiving what kind of rAponsibility they take upon
themselves, by engaging to provide for the education and
future welfare of the children who are intrusted to their care.
In making these remarks we are not maintaining so ab-
surd a doctrine as that a gentleman who has a school should
not derive from it a fair profit : we believe that a very well-
conducted school will always be profitable, and it ought to
be so. But we are sure we shall not be misunderstood bv
those who are at all acquainted with schools when we say,
that many are conducted solely and exclusively with an eye
to profit, and that the proprietors are not always influenced by
moral considerations of the high nature of their office.

This statement is by no means weakened by an examina-
tion into the general treatment of the pupils, and their beha-
viour towards the master. Where is the school in which
confidence and friendship prevail between master and pupils ?
How many schools are there in which the treatment is solely
based on love and kindness ? In most, it will be admitted,
severity and fear are the means of management ; and when
expedient, instead of experiencing proper kindness, the youth
is pampered by blameable indulgence. We could mention
facts of this kind, which we only omit from motives of pru-
dence, and from the strict obligation to avoid personalities in
this Journal ; we are of opinion, however, that such facts
ought to be made public, when there shall appear to be no
other remedy for the evils which prevail in many schools.
If the pupils could but once feel that their treatment at
school proceeded from a desire on the part of the teacher
to do everything for their present and future happiness, they
would hardly leave it with that noisy and riotous exultation,
which marks the commencement of the vacations all over the
country.* In. many schools a distinction of classes is made :
a few are parlour boarders, the rest belong to the com-
monalty. At such schools boys know, and often express
it too, that they are valued by the master in proportion to
the sum paid for them by their parents. f We think that
no system can be more mischievous than that of such a
separation of the boys into different classes : in addition to the

* If there was a sin^e bond of sympathy between master and pupil, it would
tend to diminish the pain of after recollections, when the man reflects with a sigh
on the horrors which he endured at school as a boy. — Southey*

f A parlour boarder is more valued than one who is thrown among the common

40 English Boarding-Schooli.

bad feelings excited between masters and boys^ we have the
feeling of jealousy among the boys themselves. Allied to
the principle of governing through fear^ is that regular system
of deceiving masters, in order to avoid punishment, and that
first moral lesson of all school-boys, well inculcated into new
comers by the experienced,' You must not tell;' no, you
must not tell if the most flagitious acts are perpetrated, and
the most offensive to decency and good morals. As further
connected with the principle of government through fear, we
observe that boys often not only hate but despise their
masters. This feeling of contempt, we know, is sometimes
brought from home, where children hear many and probably
just censures passed on the conduct of masters, and on the
way in which they manage the business of their schools.
All this would not be the case, unless schooling was frequently
carried on exclusively for the sake of gaining money.

Our main object at present is to direct the attention of
parents to one constituent part of boarding-schools, which we
consider to be the most powerful element of all, either for good
or for evil : we mean the teachers employed by the principal,
under the general denomination of assistants or ushers ; and
we mean only those who reside in the house. The moral in-
fluence of other assistants is necessarily very limited. Pa-
rents seem to us to be very indifferent as to the character
of these constant companions of their children at school;
and masters are certainly sometimes not very scrupulous as to
the character of the persons whom they employ, nor is their
treatment of them such as to raise the assistant either in the
eyes of the parent or pupil. The parents can know nothing
of the faults of the assistants^ except through the probably
incorrect accounts of their children, nor are they in general
anxious to inquire about their good qualities. Both parents
and heads of schools are liable to forget how much good any
kind attention on their part might produce in the character
and conduct of the ushers, who are, for the most part,
young men, who will change much according to the treat-
ment they receive ; but this unfortunately is in general not
calculated to improve their character.

In no respect, then, are the defects of the present state of
education more visible, than in the choice, character, and
treatment of the domesticated assistants in boarding-schools.
Any one who can command a decent suit of clothes, a guinea
or two for the school-agent, and a sufficient degree of boldness
and impudence to answer a few paltry questions, may get a
situation somewhere as a school-assistant. The less his de-
mands are, the more likely is he to succeed. We know of

English Boarding-Schools. 41

several cases of persons obtiuning situations even in respectable
schools, and contriving to get on for some time, till their igno-
rance was discovered by the pupils themselves, who were not,
however, sharp enough to recover their money and other things
which they had lent, before their debtors had absconded. The
salaries which are given to assistants, even in respectable
schools, <'ire often so trifling, and the duty required so laborious,
that young men of respectable connexions will rarely accept
situations in schools, unless they are forced by necessity.
Forty, thirty, or twenty pounds a-year is hardly enough to
keep up a decent appearance ; and yet many do not receive so
much. The consequence is, that an inferior set of people have
made their way into schools, many of them of low and immoral
character. They are accepted because they are satisfied with a
small salary, or because there is little choice left for the prin-
cipals. They conceal their faults as long as they can ; when
exposed at last they are quickly changed for others, probably
not much better. This class of people is often treated by their
principals much like servants ; and the consequence is^ that
they are looked upon as little better by the pupils ; thus
standing between the two, they find it frequently most ex-
pedient to make common cause with the pupils, and to seek
their favour by a cowardly and often immoral indulgence^
\^hen it is their duty to resist.

Under all these circumstances the moral education of the
pupils suffei*s most grievously. Affection and kindness be-
tween master and pupil are almost banished from school ;
the management is generally that of the cane ; and far from
this being denied, we may be prepared to hear it defended,
as the only true and effective mode of government. And,
indeed, when the disgraceful and indecent punishment of the
rod is sanctioned by the usage of some of our public schools,
when the high-bred youth at Eton stoops to receive his hu-
miliating chastisement from the hand of a dignified eccle-
siastic, surely boys of meaner birth may receive stripes with-
out complaining, from the hands of those who clothe, feed^
and teach, for twenty pounds a-year, or less.

It is true that youth require discipline to accustom them
to the observance of duty : but the constraint of discipline
can only produce an observance of duties imposed by exter-
nal circumstances ; much more important is it, to cultivate
an inward sense of duty resting in, and proceeding from the
mind. Constraint, through fear, can only weaken this moral
sense, or suppress it altogether. All the faculties of our
mind grow strong only from being exercised ; if, therefore,
the young mind be constantly forced to the performance of

42 SngUsh BoanKng'Sehoob.

duties by the master's will alone, no exercise is given to its
own impulse, to u desire of duing what the understanding
points out to be right ; the mind is not accustomed to be go-
verned by its own free will. This inward sense of duty is
chiefly fostered by friendship and esteem, it requires to be
encouraged, like all our faculties ; but it is obvious that fear
and violence have the very contrary effect.

With respect to the formation of the intellectual character^
the compulsory treatment has this bad effect, that in ortler to
give some impulse to the pupil's application, recourse must
be had to the excitement of ambition, through prizes, and
other similar distinctions. Some few, who possess more
abilities than the rest, may possibly acquire a taste for learn-
ing ; but by far the greater number become idle, as soon as
they are let loose from school discipline, — ^as soon as external
constraint and excitement are removed. Modern improve-
ments in the method of instruction can never be introduced
into schools in which the compulsory treatment prevails. It
is one of the excellent principles of Pestalozzi, and has lately
been applied with much advantage in many schools on the
continent, to let the pupil's work in all subjects of instruc-
tion be voluntary f as far as it is possible ; and the results
have been most satisfactory. Now such a system is entirely
incompatible with a treatment of force and of fear. Strict
discipline i^ necessary for the success of the system o{ volun-
tary labour^ but the chief external inducements must l)e the
master's approbation and esteem. These produce pleasant
feelings in the pupil, and therefore willingness ; fear and force
produce opposition^ and- therefore unwillingness, it is ac-
cordingly one of the distinguishing characters of PestaloEzian
instruction, to base the whole treatment and management of
the pupils on mutual kindness and esteem ; the cane is only
used in obstinate and extraordinary cases, and perhaps had
better never be used at all.

The moral character of the pupils, however, ought to be
more an object of care at schools than the intellectual. In
this country it seems to be, and in many schools is, entirely
neglected. This is shown by the absence of the right prin-
ciple, on which all morality depends, namely, love to one
another • Mutual love and esteem between masters and
pupils, we fear, are never thought of by many who are en-
gaged in instruction ; we must, therefore, show that they are
necessary for forming the moral character of youth. The
Christian commandment, ' love your neighbour as yourself,'
that is, * acknowledge in him the same dignity of which you
feel younielf possessed,' must be ooaflidered as th^ first piiii-

English BfHording'Sckoob. 43

ciple of morality. It is from mutual esteem that a feeling
of honour originates. Indeed, all that is good and praise-
worthy in human conduct proceeds from the acknowledg-
ment of that dignity in others which every one feels in him-
self. This is Christian love, this is charity — to treat our
neighbour as the work of the same great Maker of all things,
and to respect in him the same rights and privileges as in
ourselves. This Christian love in children is cherished, and
grows in proportion with the affection and esteem which
they are able to command from others. For as we see our-
selves rise in the good opinion of others, we are naturally
inclined to esteem ourselves more, and to labour more to
deserve the good opinion of our friends. But who ever
felt esteem for others, who could ever appreciate the dignijty
of others, who had none within himself ? From undeserved
esteem, or undeserved expression of esteem from others,
arises vanity. At home too great fondness and indulgence
frequently produce vanity, conceit, and arrogance ; school is
the place where esteem is most likely to be bestowed on
merit. But when pupils are in the habit of making light of
their school- master's and tutor's esteem, they run the risk of
placing their honour on false notions, and thus of losing one
of the main incitements to moral conduct. Might not the
want of character, the immorality of so many young men,
particularly at college, be attributed, in a great measure, to
their earlier life at school ? At least many immoral traits in
the character of so many men may have had their origin in
the discipline of the cane. There are many other evils in-
cident to boarding-schools, whether public or private, all
which seem to us to rise mainly from the false notions which
get established among boys at schools. These notions grow
up in a school, perhaps, almost imperceptibly, but may be
considered generally as an indication that the boys are left too
much to themselves. Dr. Arnold, in the following excellent
passage of a volume of his sermons'*' lately published, has
pointed out some of these evils very clearly, but no sufficient
practical remedy is proposed to meet them. The real evil is
in the want of sympathy between masters and pupils, the
want of friendly frequent intercourse ; the great boarding-
house system of our public schools is one of the most un-
favourable that could be devised for forming the character of
boys : —

' I am afraid it cannot be doubted that it is peculiarly the effect of

* Sermons preached in the Chapel of Rugby School, with an Address before
Confirmation. By T. Arnold, D.D., Head Master of Rugby School, &o.
Sa6on4 £ditwii. haodoQ ; f eU«wM| 163S.

44 English Boariing-SchooU.

the public schools of England to lower and weaken the connexion
between parent and child, to lessen mutual confidence, and to make
a son regard his father with more of respect than of love. Certainly,
at least, the relation in other countries of Europe is on a different
footing : there is more of cordial intimacy, more of real familiar
friendship between parents and children, than generally exist among
us. And the cause of this difference belongs greatly, I think, to the
feelings and habits acquired at school. In the first place, you are
absent from home so large a portion of the year, that other persons
and other objects engross, of necessity, a large share of your thoughts
and feelings. The absence, certainly, you cannot help ; but you
may help increasing its natural effect by your own conduct. You
become ashamed of speaking of your homes and relations in the na-
tural language of a good heart ; you talk of them to one another as
affording you such and such enjoyments ; and you are ashamed if it
appears that other boys have greater liberty, and are more indulged
at home than yourselves. And this extends to school also : you do
not like to have less money than other boys — to have fewer presents
sent you — to find your friends more unwilling to pay your debts,
than the friends of other boys are to pay theirs. This not only in-
terferes with your pleasures, but hurts your pride ; and I believe
that the annoyance to your pride is very often what you mind the
most. Thus talking, and thus feeling towards home, the effect of
long absence is increased tenfold ; concealment and restraint are
sometimes the dispositions with which you meet your fathers ; you
do not like to tell them all that you have done ; and you think your-
selves hardly used if your requests have not been all complied with.
In this undutiful and unchildlike temper, the period which you spend
at home is too short to soflen you. You return again to school,
and the mischief rapidly increases ; and it too ofteu ha])pens, that
when you go from school to college the evil becomes yet worse ;
extravagance there is practised on a larger scale, and is often ac-
companied with other vices, which make confidence towards a
parent still more difficult. Then comes actual life — and you go to
other parts of the world, or settle at a distance from your father's -
house: the opportunities of undoing the bad and cold impressions
of early life are no more attainable ; and all that passes between
father and son is a few letters, and a few short visits, till the son is
called on to perform his last act of duty, in following his father's
body to the grave.

• Far, very far, am I from saying, or thinking, that this is always,
or even generally, the case to the full extent : but it is the tendency
of schools to produce such a state of things ; it is the tendency of
that false shame, that hateful and contemptible pride, which seals
your lips against the expressions of duty and affection, which makes
you affect to be undutiful before you are so in reality. Yet so
catching is this shame, that I am afraid even those boys among you
who have the happiness of being at once both at school and at
home, are tempted to throw away their advantages. The situation
of those boys I have always thought most fortunate ; with all the

English Boarding-Schools. 46

opportunities of forming lasting friendships with those of their own
a^re^ which a public school so largely affords, and with the opportu-
nity also of keeping up all their home affections, of never losing
that lively interest in all that is said and done under their father's
roof, which an absence of several months cannot fail, in some mea-
sure, to chill. Your fault then is by so much the greater, if you
make yourselves strangers to domestic feelings and affections through
your own fault ; if you think you have any dearer friendships, or
any that can better become either youth or manhood, than those
which God himself has marked out for you in your own homes.
Add others to them if you will, and it is your wisdom and your
duty to do so; but beware how you let any less sacred connexion
weaken the solemn and universal bond of domestic love. Re-
member, that when Christ took our nature upon him, and went
through every stage of human life, to show us our peculiar duties
in each, one of the only two things recorded of him, before he arrived
at manhood, is his dutiful regard to his parents : ** He went down
to Nazareth, and was subject unto them^'' '

Parents who are more anxious to see the moral character
of their children improved than to see them gain prizes,
should endeavour to mend the present state of education, as
far as it lies in their power ; and they will find that they
can do a great deal. First for themselves, as individuals^
they ought well to ascertain, before they confide the educa-
tion of their children to other persons, whether these persons
deserve that high degree of confidence which they necessarily
appear to place in them by entrusting children to their care ;
and if they have found what they want, they should show
their esteem in every possible way, and likewise induce their
children to follow their example, by impressing on them
respect for their master, and for those assistants who aid
him in his arduous labours. Let them never forget that whea
they send their children to school^ they entrust them in a great
degree to the master's assistants, who have it more in their
power to do harm or good to the pupils than even the master
himself. They come in more frequent contact with them,
they sleep, walk with them, watch their unguarded moments,
and greatly contribute to their amusements in play-time.
We repeat the remark, parents seem generally either to
know nothing at all about the influence of school assistants
on their children, or to give themselves very little trouble
about this part of the school. Children, when away from
their parents, naturally wish to have somebody on whom
to fix their affections in the mean time ; nothing gives
more pain to a heart full of feeling than want of a proper
object. Hence children, during their first stay at school

* S«nnoa is. p. dd, &0. See aUo many exoeilent reoiarks ia Serxnoo xii,

46 English Boarding-Schools.

often feel so unhappy; everywhere they see their willing
and overflowing affections repulsed ; these soon turn sour ;
and hence the sudden change which parents are often grieved
to observe in their children when they return from school for
the first time. Even if the master of the school wishes to be
like a kind father to his pupils, their number is generally so
great, and his attention so divided, that a part of that tender
care must fall on the assistants. They ought, therefore, to be
considered and treated by parents as friends of their children,
when by their character and attainments they have merited
the approbation of an honest and enlightened schoolmaster*
As they are placed above the children with respect to theif
moral character and attainments, so they ought to enjoy a
corresponding station in society.

By exercising a careful choice in schools, by showing gra-
titude and respect both to masters and assistants who deserve
such consideration, and by impressing these feelings on their
children, parents of the middling and higher classes might at
least do a great deal towards ameliorating the character of
the schools in which their children are educated. But
many unfortunately can only choose between letting their
children grow up almost without any instruction, or sending
them to boarding-schools which, from the low terms paid,
and the smallness of the number of pupils, must necessarily
be of a' very indifferent character. One general remedy for
these defects will be a national education. Those who wish
to see the condition, not only of their own, but of all children,
rendered a more happy one at school, whose desire it is to
see the moral state of the nation improved, and human hap-
piness increased, should do everything in their power to urge
the government to the establishment of a general system of
education. It is not for the poor only that education is
wanted ; those in moderate circumstances are often entirely
deprived of good education from the want of proper schools
in convenient places, and at moderate prices ; and even
the rich cannot always get it, however willing they may
be to pay the most extravagant sums. If good education
were provided for all classes in every district, nearly all the
inferior establishments would be broken up, which would by
no means be an evil ; and if the very rich and the very few
still preferred bad boarding-schools, the evil would be incon-
siderable. But it is probable that boarding-schools would
find themselves compelled to adopt a more rational sys-
tenij if they really expected to maintain a successful com-
petition with the schools established by government on an
improved plan. At present thousands of the ckss generally

EngHsk Boarding-schools. 47

denominated the middle are obliged to have their children
educated at cheap and wretched ' academies,' where the whole
object is to make money. They really have no alternative
between this kind of education or none at all ; and yet this
is a class, the right education of which, in a political system
like ours> is at least of equal importance with that of the
poor ; and^ if we consider this class with reference to its im-
mediate influence on the poor, we think their right education
is of more immediate necessity than even that of the lowest
classes. If good schools were established by authority in every
town and country district, parents would be able to board
their children at home, and have tliem instructed in the public
school by teachers who have undergone public examinations,
in such branches as an enlightened board of education might
find most useful. Many persons who now style themselves
schoolmasters would certainly have to engage in other pur-
suits ; they might lose^ but the mass of the people would
gain, and the character of the whole nation would be rapidly
improved.

There will probably be many opponents to such a measure
of national education^ people who think the education of the
higher and upper classes good enough, and who wish the
poorer classes to receive education as charity at their hands.
As to the education of the poor, if their charity be real, and
not subservient to selfish views, they ought to see with
pleasure that done by government completely which they can
only do imperfectly. There will be still sufficient oppor-
tunities for the rich to oblige the poor and render themselves
popular in numerous ways, if their inclinations lie that way.

PHYSICAL STUDIES IN OXFORD.

In Number VIII. of this Journal we ofifered some remarks on
the condition of the physical and mathematical sciences as
at present cultivated in the University of Oxford, and more
especially regarded as a branch of academical instruction.
We were led to those remarks from the perusal of a publica-
tion * which tended strongly to point out the defects in the
existing system, and to suggest some remedies for them, in
which we were upon the whole heartily disposed to concur.
We have now received from a correspondent in that uni-

• The Present State and Future Prospects of Mathematical and Physical
Studies in the Unheniiy ot Ozfoid considered in a Public Lecture, by the Rer.
B. Pow«U» ItA, F,BJS, SavUiaii PkaGeiMr of QMnMtiy. Oxibzdy 18^.

48 Physical Studies in Oxford.

\'er8it]r a paper which has recently been circulated there re-
ferring to the same subject^ and evincing that the friends to
improvement in the university svstem are by no means re-
laxing their efforts, but endeavourmg once more to bring the
matter before those who, by the constitution of the university,
possess the sole power of originating any legislative measures,
and to whom several such appeals have been made before
without much success.

The paper in question is as follows : —

' Examination System.

^ Though there doubtless prevails throughout the university
much diflTerence of opinion as to the points in which the existing
system of instruction, and especially of the Public Examinations,
may be susceptible of improvement, yet it may be presumed that
hardly any doubt exists as to the increasing necessity for som/C alter-
ations.

' Among other points^ there is one on which nearly all who feel
an interest in the credit and efficiency of the university are agreed,
viz. the great defect in the system occasioned hy the total neglect
of physical and mathematical studies as an essential branch of a
liberal education. Not that encouragement is not held out to the
prosecution of these studies, but that they form no integrant part of
the academical system ; and that a large portion of the junior
members leave the university in total ignorance of the most common
elements of physical truth.

' Some who have felt a more especial interest in the subject have,
from time to time, urged the adoption of various measures having
in view the remedy of this evil : hut these have not met with
general support. Waiving then the consideration of several topics
on which difference of opinion may prevail, there are some measures
of improvement of so obvious a nature, and involving such slight
innovations, that it is presumed scarcely any one can allege a good
reason against their adoption, and in which, in point of fact, a con-
siderable number of the members of Convocation are known to
agree.

The object proposed is simply to render some acquaintance with
the first principles of Physical Science a necessary qualification for
the degree of B.A., and in doing so to endeavour to guard against
the operation of those causes which might impair the efficiency of
this requisition.

* If this object be admitted to be a just and reasonable one, there
can surely be no doubt that the means of securing it would be to
make such an alteration in the Statute, as, instead of the present
system, (which practically amounts to restricting the candidate to
the letter of the four books of Euclid,) should allow him a free
choice between the elements of Geometry generally^ or o^ Algebra,
Arithmetic, or any branch of Natural Philosophy : to grant, in
short, a similar latitude of choice in this department, to that allowed

Physical Studies in Oxford^ 4Q

in the Classical : but lo insist that some one of these branches should
be indispensable,

' The character of such an Examination would be effectually
secured from degfradation into mere technicalities by the stimulus
to aiming at the Fourth Class, supplied by printing the names of all
who pass in this department of the Fifth ; and still more so, if this
Fifth Class were allowed to be subdivided. And if it should be
objected, that this proposition exacts too much from the candidate,
it would surely be far better to diminish a little of what is required
in the other department, than that this should be wholly omitted,

*■ In the opinion of some favourable to this plan, it would be the
most satisfactory and effectual mode of forwarding it, if those
members of Convocation, who upon examination may see the pro-
priety of it, were to join in signing a Memorial to the heads of
houses^ requesting to have proposed to Convocation the alteration^
here suggested.

' To give them the opportunity of more full consideration, the
form of such a Memorial is here subjoined. It has already received
the signatures of several individuals, who feel a more peculiar inte-
rest in these branches of study ; and a copy will shortly be handed
round to obtain the signatures of other members of Convocation.

' To the Vice-Chancellor J Heads ofHouses^ and Proctors.

* We, the undersigned Members of Convocation, are of opinion*
first, That (in the present times, more especially) some knowledge
of Physical and Mathematical Science ought to form an indispen-
sable part of a liberal education. Secondly, That the omission of
such studies as an essential part of the university system (shown
by the prescribed qualifications at the Public Examinations) is a
manifest defect in that system.

* We therefore beg leave respectfully to express a hope that it will
be proposed to Convocation, first, To alter that clause in the Exa-
mination Statute which refers to this point : that is^ instead of the
option of four books of Euclid, to render imperative some part of
the elements either of Geometry, or of Algebra, Arithmetic, or some
branch of Natural Philosophy, as a qualification in all candidates
for the degree of B.A. Secondly, To enact, that the names in the
Fifth Class should be printed in both departments. And, lastly, if
this should be thought to be exacting too much from the candidate,
to diminish the amount of qualification in other branches, rather
than totally omit this.

* Oxford, Nov. 1, 1833.'

Of the contents of this paper we must first give such a
brief explanation as may be necessary to render some parts
of it intelligible to readers out of Oxford ; and we will then
proceed to offer one or two observations upon the subject to
which it refers.

In Oxford there is no system or plan of study avowedly
pursued. In each college each tutor adopts those books^

Oct., 1833— Jan., 1834. B

60 Physical Studies in Oxford.

and goeR through those sabjectt with his pupUt which he
deems most advisable. The only thing which really gives
any kind of a system to the course of reading is the public
examination. Here, howcveri there is considerable latitude
of choice. The examination takes place at the end of about
three years* residence, and is the preliminary to the degree of
B.A., to which, in due course of time, that of M.A. succeeds
without any further examination, exercise, or qualification of
any kind. This examination then is the real and effectual
admission to all privileges to which the candidate may aspire,
and the passport to entering upon the world and offering
himself for any profession as a university graduate. For
those who aspire to honours, a varied and severe examination
Is enjoined ; of this, in either the classical or the mathema*
tical department, it is not our purpose to speak. The paper
before us refers not to these, but to the condition of that
numerous class who, in the language of the universitVi are
called pass-men — a name which sufficiently explains itself.
Those who obtain honours have their names pnnted in four
classes. Those who merely pass without any honourable
distinction compose the fifth class, and their names are not
printed. For passing, the existing statute requires the can-
didate first to snow a competent knowledge of the Christian
religion, then to translate from any four classic authors of his
own choosing, and lastly to answer some questions either in
logic, or in the first four books of Euclid^ at his option.

The practical working of the system is this:— The lower
classes of honours are despised ; Euclid is taken only by a
small proportion, as the logic is more easy to get by rote,
and the classics are the only essential studies. This, we
believe, will suffice to put our readers in possession of all
that is necessarv for the right understanding of the document
before them. We have this and other information, to which
we shall presently refer, from the fountain-head; and our
readers may entirely rely upon its accuracy.

It is not our intention to enter upon the details of the plan
proposed to remedy the evils in question. We shall confine
ourselves to the grand point, so emphatically insisted upon
in the paper before us, the absolute necessity for introducing
some knowledge of physical science as an essential part of
an university education^ It is evident from what we have
stated that^ at present, it is not made so. It is at the option
of the student whether he will take up even the four books of
Kuclid J and, in fact, a large portion of the students in Oxford
pass through the university, not merely in idleness but even in
respectability^ and many obtain the highest distinction as Bcho«

Physical Studies in Oxford. 51

lars, without acquiring a single idea, however simple tod ele«
mentary, on any one part of physical or mathematical science.

We shall not waste arguments in labouring to prove that
this is a most glaring defect in the university system ; in
showing that it is utterly at variance with the improvements of
the age ; and that a course of education which can tolerate such
a state of things would not be adapted to the wants even of a
past generation, much less to those of the present. The mea-
sure proposed, in its main outline, is simply to mdkt some por^
tion of scientific knowledge indispensable in every candidate
for a degree ; and we must say that a more moderate or rea*
sonabM requisition we can hardly conceive. We should
rather ask, is it not a most singular circumstance, that, in the
middle of the nineteenth century, such an idea should be for
the first time started in the first university of the first country
in Europe ? — ^that a few members of that university should
be now cautiously and timidly proposing to the governing
powers to do that which we should have expected to have
seen established a century ago ? Nevertheless, those who
know anything of Oxford will not be surprised that such
measures have much opposition to encounter in the univer-
sity. In the first place, there are the old sturdy senior fel-
lows and heads of colleges* who have determined that what-
ever has been shall be ; and who stoutly oppose, not the
introduction of mathematics, but every alteration or improve-
ment whatsoever. On them, of course^ it is worse than use-
less to waste words*

There are, again, many who allow that some changes are
desirable, but as they cannot admit the propriety of this or
that point in the detail of the measures proposed, would
sacrifice improvement altogether. Others profess them-
selves, in general, friendly to the measure, but observe that
there is little chance of carrying it, and that it is hopeless at
present to attempt it. For every one to say so is the obvious
way to render it hopeless. Some recommend delay : — Take
time, they say — allow the existing system to work on and it
will naturally improve. Some amelioration has already taken
place : mathematics are more studied ; have patience, and
the study will soon become more general. We have unfor-
tunately facts before us, which show the total fallacy of this
by comparison with the unquestionable results of the existing
system. In Professor Powell's pamphlet, to which we before
referred, the numbers are distinctly stated for each year since
the examinations were instituted \ and it is the undeniable

* We are glad to be informed on good authority, tbat there are certainly tQ^o
ont of the -twenty-four heads ef teollegeb who are favourable to the improvement
proposed. ,, £ 2

52 JPhyrical Studies in Oxfords

result that the proportion of mathematical students in Ox^
ford has actually declined instead of increasing. We are
noiv enabled to add, to the information conveyed in that
pamphlet, that^ during the examinations which have since
occurred, the resulting ratio has continued nearly the same,^
with the exception of the examination of Easter term» 1833,
in which there happened to be an unprecedentedly large
number of mathematical candidates ; and, in this single in-
stance, the triumphant result was a ratio of about one in nine
— that is, one out of nine students, honoured with the degree of
Bachelor of Arts, knew something, more or less, of physical
science ! and this is a proportion quite unparalleled !

There is, however, another description of argument ac-
tually and seriously urged, which we must confess we should
little have expected to hear avowed, however we might sus*
pect it to be really entertained. The examination, say these
considerate and enlightened persons, is already so severe, that
a very large proportion of the under-graduates can only get
through it with extreme difficulty, and many fail altogether.
It would be quite monstrous to add to it any requisition for
physical or mathematical knowledge ; the candidate has al-
ready as much work as he can at all get through, and it would
be oppressing him with a most intolerable burden to require
more. Besides, the great mass of our young men are really
of such limited capacities, that they are physically incapable
of grappling with the study of mathematics or natural philo-
sophy. They really can hardly succeed in going through the
process of construing their four classic authors, though they
have been engaged upon these studies constantly for perhaps
seven or eight years before coming to college, and three
years since. It would be an excessive hardship to require of
these unfortunate youths the additional labour of studying
such difficult and abstruse systems as those of elementary
mathematics ; it would be an intolerable grievance to require
them to show a knowledge of arithmetic, or to understand
anything about the solar system or the mechanical powers.
Besides this, they have no time : their mornings are entirely
occupied with the college lectures, and it would be injurious
to their health to hinder them from the necessary recreation
of their ride or walk for the purpose of attending experi-
mental lectures, by which they would probably be incapable
of profiting. — But some little abatement might be made in
the classical attainments required. — That we can never listen
to. To destroy the glorious system of classical discipline
erected by the wisdom of our forefathers — to impair the soli-
dity of that mighty edifice — and injure the beauty of that

Physical Studies in Oxford. 53

goodly temple in which our ancestors worshipped ! and this
for the sake of introducing those low mechanical studies
which are now filling the heads of the unwashed mechanics
with every kind of vain and dangerous delusion, through every
dirty manufacturing district in the kingdom ! No ! such pol-.
lution shall not defile Oxford.

These are curious confessions ; but supposing them founded
in fact, we say, if these young men cannot acquire an ele-
mentary knowledge of science, they may be very good sort of
persons, and may become very respectable members of so*
ciety, but they are not fit to have an academical degree.
It is preposterous that thus grossly ignorant of the com^
monest rudiments of science, they should go forth to the
world as Bachelors of Arts.

But you would then reject half the candidates ; our num-
bers would be grievously thinned, and our colleges emptied.

This was exactly the argument when the first examination
system was proposed in 1800 — and what was the result ? — No
sooner was the examination instituted than a vast increase of
numbers took place ; the colleges all began to fill in an un-
precedented degree, and a regular and steady increase of
numbers took place ; and, of late years, it has become ne*
cessary to apply two^ three, or four years beforehand for ad->
mission at the colleges in highest repute.

But consider the consequences of frightening young men
away from a university where such grievous requisitions are
laid upon them. Our numbers must infallibly dwindle away,
our tutorial system be ruined, and our pockets unfurnished.
Hinc illcB lachrymce. The young aristocracy will no longer
consider it fashionable to honour Oxford even with the usual
short residence, if we impose upon them studies of a debasing
kind, unsuitable to their quality ; and then farewell to our sys-
tem of obtaining connexion, interest, and preferment ; farewell
to the dignity of the university^ and all our hopes of livings^
stalls, and mitres, by which that dignity is so nobly upheld.

That all this may be likely to happen we are disposed to
believe. We are only inclined to differ from our worthy tu-«
torial friends as to the probable cuuse and manner. We con-
tend it will never arise from the cause assigned. We rely
upon the experience of the past for assuring ourselves that no
moderate increase in the requisitions of the examination wiU
deter young men from coming to the university; and wu
believe that the immediate effect of such requisition would
be to send them better prepared from the schools, both
public and private^ in which they would no longer consume
so preposterously disproportionate a share of their time in the
mere acquisition of the Greek and Latin languages. Undei^

64 Phytkal Studies in Oxford*

such a Bystem, we should before long find ian elementary
acquaintance with science as general a qualification as a
knowledge of the classics is now ; it would come to be re-
garded as much a matter of reproach to any man pretending
to the education of a gentleman to show an ignorance of
elementary physical truths, as it is now to betray such an
ignorance of classical literature.

Such a consummation as our tutorial friends foresee^ then^
we are convinced will not arise out of the introduction of a
physical examination. But it may arise from another cause.
It may arise from the obstinate refusal to admit those studies.
There is a spirit abroad to look into the administration of all
public establishments ; there is a disposition to regard uni-
versity endowments as funds held in trust for the benefit of
the public ; and there is a growing desire to see that the in-
stitutions supported by them are turned to their legitimate
purpose. National education, especially that most important
branch of it — the education of those who are to fill all the
highest stations, civil and ecclesiastical — must be always
regulated according to the exigencies of the times ; and those
who are to discharge important public functions, in a com-
munity rapidly advancing in intellectual strength, must be
educated in a way to qualify them for the position they are to
maintain among such a people. In the present tone of the
public mind it is not a visionary expectation that public
opinion and public efforts will be directed towards an object
of such vital public importance. Again, will parents continue
to send their sons to establishments not affording them the
education which the present state of society requires ? Will a
system of influence and patronage escape the scrutiny of a
reforming age ? Will the higher classes continue to have
the means of keeping up such a system ? or will they long
remain the higher class if they persist in cherishing the spirit
of opposition to improvement, and allow those whom they
call their inferiors to rise above them in knowledge ? In a
word, will not the system of classical ignorance be in all pro-
bability overthrown, and the consummation so much dreaded
by the tutors be in all likelihood brought about by their
obstinate and perverse efforts to resist the rational and mo*
derate amendments which the few friends to academical re-
form and the physical sciences in Oxford have been, and are so
earnestly, and we trust not hopelessly, labouring to promote ?

To conclude, the proposition for amendment is now under
the consideration of the university : we shall watch its pro-
gress with the most anxious attention, and earnestly hope
(though not without some misgivings) that in a future Num-
ber we may be able to announce its success.

(55 )

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.*

It is not from any opinion of the immediate practicability of
tlie plans and views proposed in tliis Address that we are led
to notice it ; foi*, of all means yet devised for making any
great changes in education, proprietary institutions are the
most inefficient. But, because this Address advocates some
principles totally at variance with those which guide the
ordinary course of education, we think it our duty to bring
them before the notice of all real friends to improvement,
that they may be induced to consider more fully what ought
to be the settled and unchangeable principles of rational in**
fitruction.

Mr. Morgan proposes the establishment of a Professorship
of Education in the London University, as the most likely
means of giving an impulse and a right direction to public
instruction. Before we consider thiis proposition, it is
necessary to make a few remarks on some slight inaccura-
cies in Mr. Morgan's statements, which he has fallen into
from not being personally acquainted with the internal his^
tory of the London University.

Mr. Morgan speaks (p. 12) of the ' enlightened views dis-
played on the subject of education generally' in the intro-
ductory lectures of those professors who still retain their
classes : this might lead to an inference, which we do not
think is intended by the author, that those who have not
retained their classes expressed, in their introductory lec-
tures, sentiments of an opposite character. All we can ven-
ture to say is, that those professors who have not retained
their classes have left their opinions on record for those who
may wish to examine them. Again, the author speaks of
* corporal punishment* being abolished, and * the more efficient
method of oral instruction being partially introduced.' This
remark may lead to great misunderstanding among those
who know the London University only by what they read.
On the recent establishment of a day school in the Univer-
sity, it was very properly made a regulation that corporal
punishment should not be inflicted in the school : the rule of.
course applies only to the school department, and has nothing
to do either with the present or past state of the other parts
of the institution. The method of oral instruction was arni"
pletely introduced into the general classes of the University
from the very first day of its opening \ and if it now existed

* Addrcftf to the Proprieton oi the Unif entty of London. By J< M * Morgiiii
Ss^ LondoDi lS3d.

56 University ofLmdon.

only partially, which we believe is not ttie case^ we Bhould
regret that a change had been made which is not an ixxx-
provement*

On the subject of prizes, a mode of excitement adopted at
the commencement of the University, and still continued^
the author has made some remarks, which we shall quote.
We give the whole argument as it is here presented, being of
opinion that some of the evil effects of the system are not
overrated, though the question is not viewed in all its bear-
ings> nor exactly in the way most likely to overcome the pre-
judices of those who have been accustomed to consider this
species of emulation as inseparable from good instruction.
Perhaps we might say that, according to our view, there is
exaggeration in the opinions expressed as to the bad effects
of the prize system on future life ; but though there may be
exaggeration, we do not affirm that there is no truth in this
part of the statement.

* There may be some customs still continued in deference to pre-
vailing prejudices : among these, probably, is the practice of g'iving
Prizes, which, having a most pernicious tendency, it would be gra-
tifying to hear that the London University was the first to relin-
quish, and to prove how much more could be achieved without the
aid of artificial stimulants.

• The Prize is the least effectual mode of accomplishing the ob-
ject desired : and it is founded in injustice, inasmuch as it heaps
honours and emoluments upon those to whom Nature has already
been most bountiful, and whose enjoyments are multiplied, and in-
creasing in a greater ratio than others, by the more easy acquisition
of knowledge. The favoured individual has also a much higher
enjoyment in his ability to assist others; for as it is most true, that
'^ it is more blessed to give than to receive," the blessing is still
greater as the gifl is more valuable ; and when youth are trained,
as they can be, to derive pleasure from aiding their companions,
the act of teaching strengthens the memory, and improves both the
understanding and the feelings. These are the rich and enduring
rewards which accompany the right exercise of talent ; and, as if
resolved to defeat the designs of Nature, we deprive ingenuous
youth of the generous and happier motive — we rob him of the
•' prize of his high calling," and present him with one sordid and
selfish. What, then, is the consequence ? He no longer regards
the boys of inferior capacity ; and those who approach near to him
in talent, he views with jealousy. He gains the prize, and enters
society, where he looks eagerly for other prizes ; he is vexed and
harassed by disappointment, or he may reach the object of his am-
bition ; his former associates are forgotten, perhaps even those who
have contributed to his elevation.^— And what is the effect upon the
boy of inferior organization ? He can never hope to gain the prize ;
and the intelligent boy, who would have taken him by the hand,

Univettity tjf JLondon. 57'

and to whom he would have looked up with affection and gratitude,
and anxiously sought some means of returning his kindness, knows,
him scarcely by nartie : — the poor boy is disregarded in society, suf*
fers the consequences of neglect, perhaps want, crime, and misery.
This principle obtains in most of our schools, laying a broad foun*
dation for all the antipathies and evils of society.

' But the bad effects of the Prize end not with the superior and
inferior boys : they may be traced through all the intermediate
gradations of talent ; — praise and invidious comparison are only
other forms of the same principle, — alike fruitful in envy, pride,
scorn, and bitter neglect. In the curiosity of children there is a
sufficient and a natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge,
and wc live in a world abounding in the means of useful and plea-
surable gratification. AW that is required of preceptors is to aid
the developement of the faculties with affection and judgment.

* Were the question of the utility of Prizes proposed for conside-
ration and discussion among the boys themselves, — such is their
sense of justice, that I have not the least doubt that in a short time
they would decree their abolition.'

Those who advocate the prize system, of course maintaia.
that something is gained by this stimulus, and that, without
it^ boys would not exert themselves sufficiently. Mr. Mor-
gan and others will assert, on the contrary, that the stimulus,;
so far from producing any general good effect, even with
reference to the mere acquisition of knowledge, is positively
injurious* Baton this as on many other questions of a moral
character^ no judgment can be given which will be universally
received, because there is no test which all parties will allow
to be infallible. Many persons approve of the prize system,
because they have always been accustomed to it ; if we direct
their attention to what its opponents conceive to be its in-
jurious effects^ the question may perhaps some time be
decided on its merits. At present, the advocates of prizes
are by far the majority.

We offer the following considerations on the subject of
excitement by prizes^ with the view of bringing the matter
forward for discussion. The writer of these remarks has
thought on the subject; and has formed an opinion in which
opinion he may perhaps be mistaken. Those who are the
advocates of the prize system, we believe, have not yet
thought much on the subject ; for when we are following a
certain rule or practice, whatever it may be, which has been
transmitted to us from a previous generation, we are not
likely to be the first to enter on the consideration of the ad*
vantages or disadvantages of the practice which we adhere
to, or to investigate the principle on which it is based. The
discussion generally commences with those who> being out

58 l/niverH^ of London* ,

of the immediate influence of the particular rule or practice,
contemplate its effects from a distance : from their outward
position they generally are the first to discover a defect, if
there is one ; they may sometimes also overlook a merit,
which can only be discovered by a nearer approach. With
a full conviction of the difficulty of the subject, and with a
conviction equally strong as to the importance of the question,
we make the following remarks, solely with the view of in-
viting the advocates of the prize system to a more complete
discussion of the question thau we feel competent to under-
take.

It appears to us, that all excitements by prizes have the
same essential character, and differ only in degree, some being
less immoral and less hurtful than others. 'I'he prize-fighter
and the prize-man stand on the same ground : they are both
the offspring of ill-directed love of distinction ; both are the
objects of vulgar applause and contemptible jealousy ; and
both are excited, not by the desire, in the one case, to possess
a body sound, healthy, and capable of enduring all necessary
toil, nor, in the other, by a real love of knowledge, (that is,
a love of truth), but by a desire to obtain that which only
one can have, and all covet to possess.

In addition to the bad effects of the prize system on the
character of the combatants, we have observed another con-
sequence, which is most unfavourable to the improvement of
education. Parents have often been indifferently educated
themselves, and are not well qualified to judge of their chil-
dren's progress at school. The system of distinctions and
prizes is calculated to obscure their judgment, and to make
them adopt a false criterion. We are led to these remarks^
by having observed how often parents judge of their son's
progress at school^ by his success in obtaining a prize or a
high place, and by nothing else. The real amount and.
nature of his acquirements are not inquired after ; much less
the kind of character in which he is growing up. Has he
got a prize ? Is he first or second in his class ? — on the
answer to these questions depends their opinion of their
child's proficiency. It happens under this system, that
those parents, whose sons are successful, often form most
extravagant and ridiculous expectations of what they are to
do in the world; and those, whose children fail in obtaining
the envied distinctions, are apt to regard them, as we have
more than once seen, not with the usual feelings of parental
tenderness, but as unfortunate objects, on whom much ex-
pense has been thrown away. In the same manner the
number of prizes gained at college, by boys from public

XJniverHtjf of London:, 59

schools^ is the usual test by which the relative merits of such
schools are determined. Those who will take the trouble of
examining the prize lists of Oxford and Cambridge,, and the
registers of those who have attained the highest honours of
every description^ will certainly find in them the names of
numerous individuals who have distinguished themselves in
after life by a well-earned reputation. They will find, also,
the names of many who have never done anything afterwards
which is worth mentioning; they have sunk into inactivity
and apathy, for want of a stimulus which no longer exists.
The only enduring incentive to vigorous exertion and the
investigation of truth is, the love of knowledge and the
feeling of pleasure arising from its pursuit: when this is
wanting, the stimulus of personal distinction is found to be
comparatively weak and ineffectual • We believe that our
English universities would produce more able men, if all dis<^
tinctions, that are attainable only by a few, were abolished ^
the contemplation of rewards that, from their nature, can
only be acquired by a very limited number> tends to discou*
rage a great many who are well-disposed to exert themselves
to the best of their ability. These solitary distinctions exalt
the individuals who obtain them far above their real merits
and, in the opinion of the public, place between them and their
nearest unsuccessful rivals, a wide interval, as indefinite a&
it is unjust. It often happens, too, that the prizes of one
year are obtained by individuals who, in other years, would
have fallen far short of the mark : thus a standard of merit is
established which deceives the public, flatters the vanity of
individuals, and, we refer for proof of our next assertion to
the lists of university prize-men, gives an undue and prema-
ture value to many names, never afterwards rendered illus^
trious by any act or labour, for which the thanks of ^their
country are due.

It appears as if some confusion often exists, both in the
minds of the opponents and the advocates of prizes, between
prizes and examinations, A prize is a distinction for which
many contend, but only one gains the prize, or at most two..
It is given to the first in the race, often without regard to
the real amount of his knowledge ; it is refused to the second,
though his merit may be of the highest order. A well con-
ducted examination is an improvement in the modem system
of English schools and colleges : it tends, when framed on
sound principles, to induce habits of forethought, prudence,
and accurate knowledge. An examination may be, and often
is, so constituted as to produce almost the reverse of these
beneficial effects* The object of a good examination is to as-:

60 University ofLondotu

certain how far pupils have advanced in any branch of know^
ledge, by the instruction of their teachers and their own
industry. To give to industry its due reward, and to pre-
vent the idle and immoral from being confounded with those
who have laboured to deserve the approbation of their
teachers and their parents, it appears necessary to give to
each some certificate of his good conduct, which should be
refused to those who have not merited it by using their best
endeavours. We have of late been led to think that there
is no advantage in anything beyond this, nor any value in a
classification of boys according to their relative attainments ;
still less does the conferring of distinctions, in the way of
prizes, appear a necessary result of an examination. All
who have given unequivocal proofs of industry and docility
ought to receive the same certificate : the additional reward
which the cleverest pupils will receive, and which cannot be
withheld from them, will be the consciousness of their own
powers, the satisfaction of their parents^ the pleasure which
a teacher cannot refrain from expressing when he sees the
rapid progress of his ablest pupils, and the superiority tacitly
allowed them by all the members of the same class or school.
So just in general is the judgment formed by their fellow-
students of those among them who possess intellectual supe-
riority, that their decision often anticipates that of the awarder
of prizes, and sometimes redresses the injustice of a wrong
judgment.

We are aware that there are some weighty objections
urged against what we have said as to a uniform certificate ,
of diligence and good conduct. One objection that is
raised is this : it would tend to bring the examinations to a
low standard, and thus diminish the activity both of pupils
and teachers. We are not quite convinced of the truth of
this assertion, which appears to be founded on an estimate
of the qualities of a good teacher and the general capabilities
of pupils, different from what we should make. But still
we allow that this objection ought not to be overlooked in
determining the nature of the classification, which is to de-
pend on the results of an examination. If we divide the
pupils into three, four, or five classes, as the case may be,
and place each pupil in the class to which his attainments
entitle him, without making any distinction of rank in each
class, we think enough will be done to obviate the objection
just urged. Such a classification offers ample motive for
exertion, and does not present any serious difficulties. All
thus receive the reward which is due to their attainments
and diligence, except those who have laboured hard, but

Univer$i(yi of London* 61

have not been able to reach the required standard. For such
pupils a certificate of diligence and docility is absolutely es«
sential to remove perhaps the only serious objection to this
kind of classification. But the prize, the thing which only
one can have, though twenty may deserve it, we consider to
be a thing altogether diflferent, and we beg those who read
these remarks not to overlook the distinction here laid down.

The prize system, begun in schools and colleges, is con-
tinued by learned societies. Men are thus to be stimu-
lated to do that which otherwise they would neglect. Science
can never receive any great improvement by inducing men to
contend for a prize, as is already apparent from the history
of prize-giving societies. When a public body chooses to
express, by an honorary token, its sense of the services of
an individual, whose moving power is a love of his pursuits^
this is merely an acknowledgment of merit, which, when
justly conferred, may be a source of legitimate satisfaction to
the individual, and of advantage to the communitj% The
value of the testimonial will depend on the opinion enter-
tained of the body or authority that confers it. It may
proceed from the caprice of one in power, or be given in
accordance with the frivolous distinctions obtaining in
society ; in which cases it only tends to lower the character
of the individual who receives it, and to make his claims to
public respect less certain than they were before.

The main object of Mr. Morgan's pamphlet (as developed
in p. 27, and following pages) is to show the advantage of
establishing a Professorship of Education in the London
University. A professor of Education would, in fact, be also a
professor of Monils and of the Phenomena of the Human Mind*
That such a professorship, if endowed and well filled, might
be of great utility, no one will deny : the class would at first
be very small, and could only be raised to any considerable
numbers by a man who united with the requisite knowledge
and mental qualities some power to recommend and adorn
his subject, by a ready and appropriate use of language.
But if it be true, as the writer of the pamphlet intimates
(p. 4), that the London University, though founded without
regard to religious opinions, cannot have a professor of Moral
Philosophy, ' because no professor could be found to lecture
on morals unconnected with religion;' — then we see no
chance of a professor of Education ever finding his way into
their walls. The true reason of there being no professor of
Moral Philosophy we believe is, not that a man could not
be found in all England to admit the proposition, that a
system of ethics might be framed unconnected with reli-

62 University of London.

gion ;— the University of Oxford, which is now esBentially a
place of religious education in accordance with the principles
of the Established Church, prescribes and recommends the
study of Aristotle's £thics i if the University thought that a
system of ethics unconnected with religion was necessarily
hostile to religion, we presume they would not tolerate the
Ethics of Aristotle '*' ; but the true reason has been the unwill-
ingness or inability of the Council to follow up and complete
the plan on which the University was announced to the
world. The fault is not the fault of individuals, but the
defects of the proprietary system ; mutual concessions are
unavoidable when a number of people are united in one un-<
dertaking. When all parties are quite sure that they are
fully agreed, the co-operation of the proprietary system may
produce great results at a moderate expense to individuals,
iiut in all large undertakings of this kind, there seldom
appears to be complete good faith on all sides : some little
objection is always at the bottom, which in time oozes out
and becomes very troublesome. In our opinion, neither the
London University, nor any other proprietary institution, will
be able to effect any great change in education. The reasons
have been already given in part, and there are others that
will readily suggest themselves to those who are practically
acquainted with such institutions.

We do not wish it to be inferred, that we think proprietary
institutions are now doing no good, and can do no good.
Our opinion iis exactly the reverse: they are the index
of a certain state of opinion, and show a certain amount of
union, which display themselves in the formation and sup-
port of institutions, both for religious teaching and youthful
instruction. It is thus that new sects in religion arise,
obtain support, and gradually become powerful communities :
it is thus that certain opinions on education gradually esta-
blish themselves in quiet, and at last proclaim themselves to
the world by some outward evidence of union or co-opera-
tion. Both the I^ndon University and the King's College
must be considered, in their present condition, and without
reference to the mode in which each originated, as acknow-
ledgments of the following principle — that institutions for
education should be established in large towns, combining
the advantages of a cheap day-school with a residence
under the parental roof. The addition of the privilege of the
choice of studies and the furnishing instruction in a greater
variety of subjects may be considered as two other principles
added to the practice of our universities and public schools^

* See Journal, Noi III

IMiversiiy qf^London. 63

All this ig clear gain* But it is manifestly a great defect in
the organization of the London University, that any branch
of knowledge, and particularly such a branch as morals,
should be excluded from its course of instruction. We think
it is a defect in its constitution, that theology also (we do
Dot mean either the particular doctrines of the Church of
England, or those of any other denomination of Christians)
should not be taught as well as other things. The practical
wisdom of those who made exceptions to any branch of study
may very fairly be questioned. The true friends to universal
toleration would wish to see the principle of the London
University carried into full effect ; and the members of the
Established Church would gladly see the King's College
adhere strictly to the principle of being exclusively a Church
establishment, without making the least concession. It ap-
pears to us that an institution or a school should either profess
and follow up strictly the religions discipline of the deno-
mination of Christians for which it is intended ; or, admitting
the principle that religious education is not the province
of school and college instruction, it should provide a course
of instruction in morals. It is no answer to say, that religious
instruction is the province of the parents, and should be con<
ducted under the parental roof. Parents' views differ very
much on such matters, and are often unsettled : many also
have neither time nor inclination, nor the good habits neces-
sary to make them proper instructors either in religion or
morals ; and some cannot even set their children the decent ex*
umple of good conduct, which ought to be the first as it is the
most important practical lesson of all. Under these circum-
stances, for an institution to teach neither religion nor morals,
is an act of inconsistency only to be explained from the
defects of the proprietary system, whenever individuals of
all shades of opinion are associated in one undertaking.
That this difficulty^ however, is not insuperable we hope and
almost believe,

Mr. Morgan suggests the establishment of a Society for
the Promotion of £ducation> so far connected with the Lon-
don University, as to have the use of the library for its
meetings. A Society for the Promotion of Education might
possibly be a useful institution, whether connected with the
University or not ; but the same difficulty starts up here as
on every other subject which relates to the moral improve-
ment of our country. Is the society to have for its object
the Promotion of Christian Knowledge or not ? The answer
to this question may be, that there are already numerous
associations who actively devote themselves to this object t

64 Universihf of London*

but none which devotes itself specially to the Formation of
good habits among all classes, more particularly the poor,
and to the diffusion of all improved methods of instruction*
A society which would limit itself to this object might do
much good, and we think might number among its members
many benevolent and able men* But in considering the for-
mation of societies in London^ we must bear in mind that a
very large part of the members are attracted by any motive
but that for which the society is founded : the gratification
of vanity in some' shape is that which influences a great
many. In most societies such members, though perhaps a
mnjority, can do no great harm, because, as they are gene-
rally unacquainted with those sciences or objects for which
the society is instituted, they are compelled to yield the
management of affairs to those who are better able to direct
them. But unfortunately, education, like morals, metaphy-
sics, and a few other kindred subjects, is a thing which all
people fancy themselves qualified to pronounce upon ; and
we consequently fear, that in a Society for the Promotion of
Education there would not be sufficient unity of purpose ;
there would be too many masters and planners* Many who
are real friends to education, and would willingly give money
to promote its diffusion and improvement, are themselves too
little acquainted with the details of instruction to devise
measures of practical utility ; and again, those who have been
instructors themselves are, we think, often much too strongly
attached to their own views and methods, and think that
there is only one way of doing one thing. There are, how-
ever, many ways of doing one thing, and sometimes all of
them good ways. The proper object of a Society for the
Promotion of Education is the diffusion of good methods of
instruction, including, of course, a judicious choice in the
matter to be taught. This can never be done by books or
lectures : it can only be done by educating young men for
the profession of a teacher. The establishment of a normal
school in London for this purpose would be an object worthy
of a society ; and we can see no good reason why it should
fail, if a sufficient number of subscribers could be found.
But we have considerable doubts if the contributions of indi-
viduals would be sufficient for the purpose; indeed, it is quite
impossible to anticipate what would be the number of per-
sons willing to support a Society for Education, entirely
Unconnected with religious instruction. That which indivi-
duals could only accomplish by making considerable sacri-
fices might be done by a government with the certainty of
success I but no friend to rational improvement would wish

University of London. 65

to see a government doing more than contributing the money,
unless the principle of toleration 9 the true not the fictitious
toleration, were the basis of the system.

It may be asked, what would the young men do aft^r being
trained for the profession of a teacher? The answer is,
that they would immediately find employment as teachers,
unless our anticipations of the demand for good instruction
are very much beyond the mark. In many districts, the
greatest obstacle to the establishment of a school, is the want
of good teachers : a school-room and pupils are often readily
found, but a good teacher cannot always be had for money.
We feel no hesitation in hazarding the assertion, that a well-
organized normal school would soon have more applications
for teachers than it could supply. A young man educated at
such a school, and backed by proper testimonials, would also
run less risk in establishing himself as a teacher in a village
or small town, on his own account, than if he were to go to
a place where he was entirely unknown. It would often be
the case, that the religious communities in difierent parts of
the country would wish to have a teacher among them of
their own persuasion, and, in this case, they could send a
young man i\p to the school to receive the necessary train-
ing. The Model School of the British and Foreign School
Society, in the Borough-road, London, has constantly some
teachers there who are qualifying themselves for their pro-
fession; and we have no doubt that a residence of even a
few months in the Borough School must be of very great
advantage to these young men. But what might we not ex-
pect, if they were trained in as systematic a manner as in the
Prussian schools, and subjected to regular examinations }*

A normal school, or school for the education of teachers,
necessarily implies also a school in which boys are taught ;
for it is by teaching the boys, and seeing them taught, that
the future teachers are in a great measure to be formed. The
instruction which they would themselves receive in the
various branches of knowledge, would be confirmed and ex-
tended by the practice of communicating it to others. . The
income, whatever it might be, derived from the boys' school^
would of course go towards the general expenses of the esta-
blishment. Besides this, the teachers who are preparing for
their future profession would also contribute their share ; for
it would be a great mistake to offer gratuitous instruction to
those who are to be the instructors of others. The tendency
of this would be to invite the idle and the worthless by the
offer of education as a charitable gift from the rich, and to

* See Journal of Education, No^ XIL
OcT^ 1833<-jAif.; 1834. « F

-riez-£-

€6 Univenitjf of Ltnidan,

repel the industrious who are anxious to raise themselves in
the world. One of the most important things in securing a
good bodv of teachers is^ to draw them, as far as possible,
from a class already possessed of industrious and moral
habits ; and, as the teacher is destined to operate on the con-
dition of the poorest classes, it is proper that he should be
from a class near enough to the poorest to know their con-
dition, and yet so far above it as to have been exempt in his
youth from the contamination, in this countr}% almost insepa-
rable from the lowest states of society.

The objects which Mr. Morgan proposes to accomplish by
the establishment of a Professorship of Education are ex-
plained more particularly in his pamphlet, to which we refer
the reader. However opinions may differ, either as to the
practicability or usefulness of what he recommends, there
can be but one opinion on the benevolent viewH of the
author. The only way, as it appears to us, in which his
views could be carried into effect, as things now are, would
be to attach a normal school to the London University
School for the training of teachers of the higher class. Such
an establishment M^ould of course require a head, who might
be styled, if desirable, the Professor of Education, If the
London University could train teachers well, and qualify them
to be good instructors for the middle classes of society, it
would be extending widely the sphere of its usefulness, and^
perhaps, it might thus ultimately add some small amount to
Its income.

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
Moral Education (^PracUcal)

TitB education which an enlightened father and a good and
tender mother give to their children is, no doubt, the most
simple, the most natural, and the most conformable to rea-
son. All the elements, all the principles of the first, and, at
the same time, best possible education, are, and ought to
be, given in the bosom of the family, by a father and mother
capable of undertaking the duty.

The judicious love of the father and mother will always be
the best formative principle of infancy, boyhood, and youth.
If this pure and primitive affection be wanting to a young
man, his moral education will be deficient, and his whole life
be embittered by the consequences which will ensue.

It is in the family that man receives life, and it is there
that he should be taught how to preserve it healthily and

Public Instruction. 67

employ it usefully. This primitive society ought to fit him
to play his part in one more enlarged, when he will meet
with other individuals circumstanced like himself.

Domestic life and education are introductory to social.
From this source, more or less pure, spring the principles
ai)d maxims which govern the conduct of men in society.

It is in the family circle that a man receives those early
aiul ineffaceable impressions which colour the sentiments,
thoughts, ideas, and conceptions of his whole after-life, and,
by an influence, indirect and imperceptible, give a bias to hia
inclinations, his actions, and his moral conduct.

The influence of the family on the education of the youth
is the same as that of the mother on the education of thQ
child : it has like power and means, and ought to produce
similar results.

For example : — the impressions of virtue, the sensations
proper to elevation of soul and generosity of heart, to noble-
ness of sentiment and expansion of thought, to purity of
view and integrity of intention, to propriety of speech and
uprightness of action, can be familiar to that man alone who
has, as it were, imbibed them witli his nurse's milk, drawn
them from the heart of his mother and the understanding of
his father, and renewed them in his daily communication
with parents, brothers, sisters, friends, till, from time and
habit, they have become a constituent part, an inherent ele-
ment of his nature and moral being.

It is the duty of both parents to stamp these happy im-
pressions on their family, to cultivate those dispositions of
tlieir children which will facilitate the attainment of the
moral and virtuous habits which they must one day practise
in society.

The first principle, the primary law of private education, is,
that the father and mother — those natural legislators — in-
struct the children as to the preservation, improvement, and
prosperity of that society which is the family. The know-
ledge and application of this principle to that condition of
life constitute the spirit of private education. This spirit
will be enlightened if the father and mother are so them-
selves. A most important and essential condition, therefore,
is, that the parents possess sufBcieiU; moral intelligence to
bring up their children properly.

There are very few parents who are ignoritnt that the
principal object in education is to exercise the body, to culti-
vate the mind and heart,yto induce the practice of good
habits, to call forth the powers of reason, and to give employ-
ment to the faculties.

I F2

66 Public Instruction.

Private education has more to do with action than medi-
tation, with labour than study, with deeds than words; in fact,
more with examples than precepts. It is in activitVy in the
daily practice of the duties of social life, that it finds the
means of improvement.

The first education of the child is peculiarly instinctive.
Through its senses, and from the objects which surround it,
the child receives, like all of us, impressions and ideas by
which it is attracted and repulsed ; its senses are exercisedi
its mind developed, independently of our influence. It was
necessary that this should be so ; for if, during its early
years, the child did not learn by its own activity and curiosity
more things than during all the rest of its life, there can be
little doubt that the world's stock of prejudice and error
would continually increase. In the same way that the
stomach elaborates our food, the lungs purify our blood, and
the heart distributes it independently of our will, so the child
observes, compares, judges, and gathers information by a
sort of internal and instinctive impulse. Nature, apprehen-
sive that we might err, has done nearly all the work ; to us
is left the secondary, yet noble, task of following her tracings,
of filling in her outlines, of completing what she has com-
menced.

Our first teacher therefore is nature ; upon her lessons
ours should be based. The father and mother ought to
study the earliest manifestations of infancy; and, in the
absence of other instructors, endeavour to judge, from the
external signs, the inward condition of the organs of life and
thought. One of the most efficacious means, in our opinion,
for exciting the interest of a child, and stimulating it to ac-
complish what it undertakes, is to allow it to believe (pro-
vided it in truth be so) that the object it aims at is useful;
for all instruction ought to have for principle and end the
supply of individual and social wants.

If the child then be your companion, you will observe how
it performs its task ; but in this case it will be necessary to
change the work often, to settle with the little labourer the
value of his exertions, to allow for them a price based on
previous agreement. Observe what is done by a number of
unrestrained children. They play at commerce, at business,
at war ; they imitate our occupations, our enterprises, our
jiegotiations, our follies. They themselves indicate and clearly
point out the way by which you should conduct them ; but
you wilfully, ignorantly, or conceitedly turn them back from
it : they Mdsh to produce useful things, and to profit by
them : you either employ them not at all, or on things of

Public Instruction. 69l

neither actual nor apparent utility. They seek to know all
the objects which surround them : on these you say not a
word ; but you force them to pore with pale and anxious
faces for many a long year over dry and uninteresting books.
In short, they wi«h to live socially^ to exchange words and
ideas ; but, instead of this, their circle of communication and
intelligence is narrowed and confined: they exist without
action, without spontaneity.

Companionship in toil lightens labour, and this is a truth .
recognized by all the human race. The advantage of asso-
ciated labour is so evident and so considerable, so stimulating
and so agreeable, that after the first or private parental edu- .
cation, we cannot too strongly recommend the education
which is acquired by the child in fellowship with other chil*
dren.

Parents will have attained the end of private education if
they have taught their children to labour by example^ with-
out having told them to labour ; if by doing good, they have
taught them to do good ; if by cherishing affection towards
each other, they have taught them to be loving; if by practising
themselves good habits, they have thus said to them, learn
to conduct yourselves after this or that manner. Example
is the best teacher.

The life of a child in the family ought to be a kind of ap-
prenticeship to the life which it will afterwards lead in the
school, and one day in the world. It should be simple,
frugal, laborious, masculine, and vigorous, in order that the
future man may become strong, robust, courageous, and
capable of acting in all the scenes of life with energy of mind
and firmness of character.

Children should be accustomed in the family to a regular
life, to pure manners, to habits of integrity, and to act on
principles drawn from practical experience. The life of the
parents should be the model of that of the child : to inspire
good habits it is necessary to practise them ; in the same
way, as to acquire or give strength, it is necessary to take
exercise.

If a father wishes to strengthen the bodies of his children,
he exercises them every day by a course of gymnastics which
they create for themselves in the plays and games which they
invent, and carry on about the paternal house. He teaches
them to swim ; he directs their attention to the cultivation of
the ground, and of plants ; to the rearing of domestic animals,
to rural economy, to agriculture, and to the arts and handi-
crafts which belong to them. He takes them walks across
fields and woods, holding by the way instructive conversation.

An intelligent father mingles in the labours and pursuits

70 Public Jkiiruction.

of hb children ; he conducts them into the finest scenes of
nature^ selects for them the most delightful spots, and teaches
them to contemplate their beauty ; be leads them to examine
the productions of the animal* vegetable, and mineral king-
doms, and to mark the variety of beings and objects which
present themselves to their view, together with the disposition
and due proportioning of things: at the same time he

fives them healthy ideasi and just notions, of each object,
y speaking of them while under their observation.

WhUe training their bodies he cultivates their minds, and,
according to the measure of their strength, apportions the
extent and importance of their tasks, their games and their
exercises. As the mind unfolds, the intellectual power will
predominate over and direct the physical; and these two
powers^ well applied, will become the instruments of the
tnoral power for the production of good.

The father will teach, or rather unceasingly repeat to his
children, that real virtue is the practice of what is good and
useful ; that evil is what is obnoxious, tliat truth is fulness of
right knowledge, falsehood the blindness of ignorance ; that
virtue, goodness, and truth are the perfection of happiness.

It is in the family that maxims of practical use in society
ought to be engraved on the minds and hearts of children.
Their tender understanding easily receives the impressions
of virtue, when they are led by pleasant paths to practise the
lessons which they are taught by example.

Children have a judge of their actions in the father or the
mother, whose better information ought to rectify any ten-
dency to vice or error in those actions. They ought also
to possess a judge in their own hearts, of which they should
acquire a knowledge by a daily examination of their con-
science. Every morning on rising they ought thus to
question it in presence of their parents or instructors.

What ought I to do during this day ? What should be
my conduct ? What good is it in my power to accomplish ?
And in the evening. What have I done in the course of the
day ? What has been my conduct ? What purposes have I
e£fected ? Why did I do this or that ? Am I content with
myself?

To teach the child to bring to this examination sincerity
and uprightness of heart, to carry the love of truth even into
the scrutiny of its own defects, its evil inclinations and
propensities, by inducing it to censure them^ and to promise
daily amendment with a recurrence to the advice and counsel
of the parent in doubtful and embarrassing cases, is to lay the
practical foundation of all morality and all moral education.

Leibnitz, whose authority is always entitled to respect.

Public Instruciiofh IX

BayS| in one of hia letters to Placciulii ' I have always thought
that the human race might be reformed if the education of
youth were reformed.'

Bacon^ whose Novum Organum has justly conferred on hin^
the title of Founder of Modern Philosophy* has said with
his accustomed precision, * Man can only act according to
the measure of his knowledge ; he knows nothing that he
has not observed*^ Afterwards, more fully developing thi9
valuable truth, he says, * The human mind is of a subtle and
volatile nature ; every thing deceives it, and it eludes every
search. But they might construct certain improved instru**
ments, fit, so to speak, to give substance to the results of
observation and experience, and which might yield to tbo
mind and to the soul services analogous to those which thei
rule and the compass render to the eye and the hiEind.' '

Already the watch, an instrument so commonly and uni-^^
versally used, that the pains, time, and ingenuity which have
been employed in inventing and improving it are scarcely
heeded, has given substance to time, and fixed by divisions
palpable to the senses of sight, touch, and hearing, the
passing moments of which it is composed, and given it a
voice which cries to man, * / march^ and fhoUf what doesi
tAouf Like that slave, who^ we are told, was enjoined by
Philip of Macedon to repeat to him each morning, ' JS^"*
member thee, that thou art a man*'

In the same way that the rapid flight of thq hours is re-*
gistered by a watch, and we can review the manner in which
they have been employed, we think it would be possible
to invent a small table, to be called a Regulator, adapted to
furnish to each individual, who might choose to use it, an
easy and simple means of surveying his conduct, and mea-
suring it by the different occupation of each interval of the
twenty-four hours : thus rendering to the mind by a tabular
record of observation and exprience, progressive and com-
parative, the same services^ or very nearly so, that the rule
and compass render to the eye and hand.

Many philosophers, from Pythagoras and Seneca to Locke
and Franklin, have proposed rules of conduct and guides for
the direction of human life, with a view to its improvement ;
and these, without doubt, might be well adapted to the re-
gularity of a college or conventual life. The habits of order
which are enjoined by these celebrated moralists must of
necessity have a . salutary influence on children, whoj freed
from its cares, are not exposed to the rude action of the
hostile elements of social life.

NoW| while we appreciate and respect the sage counsels

72 Public Instruction.

of these superior men, who have sous^ht the best means of
introducing moral reform, we believe it is possible to add to
that which they have commenced, and in a manner to com-
plete their work.

Every man who has some ideas of order and economy, or
even obeys the instinct of self-interest and self-preservation,
allows not a piece of gold, or even of silver, to escape from him
without knowing pYetty nearly what becomes of it^ and he
employs it only to procure something agreeable or useful.
When u piece of money has been expended or lost, that
expense or loss can be made up by a happy combination of
circumstances, or by exertion. But when a fraction of the
current coin of time^ called a day^ is lost, who can retrieve
it? Who can compensate us for having allowed it to pass
by without any agreeable or useful result, or, as is too often
the case, for having wasted it by plunging, through heed-
lessness, imprudence, levity, or the impulse of the passions,
into an abyss of misfortunes ?

How happens it that we take less heed of the expenditure
of our time, than we do of the outlay of our money ?

It is often said, that time is a treasure which we should
guard with a miser's care. But the consequences which
naturally flow from this thought have never been fully de-
duced.

It has, therefore, appeared essential to us to constmct for
the use of children or youths a Regulator^ which, whatever
may be its form, shall be fitted to render of easy applieation
a regular and economic method of employing each day's
time, and to furnish the means of knowing, with all possible
accuracy, in what manner each hour has been spent.

' The old precept^ which, the Roman satirist tells us, de-
scended'*' from heaven, rvft/&i (reat/rov, Know thyself has been
reproduced in all ages, among all nations, and in all tongues.
The question is^ how to make the application of it easy and
general.

We have drawn out, after an idea suggested by Franklinf ,
a regulating'table, which will in about five minutes allow
any individual to record, every morning, upon a single line,
the various occupations, and the principal results of each
hour of the past day.

The Regulator is a series of small tables composed of
columns representing all the possible employments of human
life, and all the relations of the social state.

The first and second column to the left of the table in-

* ]&coelo deftoendit ywdi ri«»r«n f See his Life and Posthumoiis Works.

PubHc^ ImirucHon. 73

dicate the day of the week and the name of the month. The
third column, more ample in size, is designed for an account
of the daily variations of temperature^ variations which ex-
ercise a natural and necessary influence over man and upon
his conduct. The fifteen columns which follow, from the
fourth to the sixteenth, express, by the figures to be written in
them, the number of hours given to each of the divisions of
life, physical, moraly intellectual, social, and passive or vege^
tative, A column much larger than the preceding (^Remarks
or Reflections) is designed to receive in two or three lines,
corresponding to the line of the day, the explanation of those
columns which are for that day the most charged with in-
cident ; and it should contain at the most twenty-five or thirty
words of observation, in order to recall the names of persons,
places, establishments, or the most remarkable objects which
have been seen during the day, or the most important things
which have been done. The eighteenth or last column (ap-
preciation of conduct) is designed to receive a secret sign,
(as a note of music^ a letter of the alphabet, an algebraic
character, or any other figure^) which shall faithfully recall
and render visible to the eye, or as it were intuitive to the
mind, the good, bad, or indifferent impressions which the
past day has left in it.

Thus three tables of ten days each, containing thirty or
thirty-one lines, will describe a month. Thirty-six tables,
making 365 lines, will represent the twelve months of the
year ; and, followed by a final recapitulatory table of twelve
lines, for a summary account of the twelve months, constitute
the Regulator.

We give here the form of a table of the different employ-
ments of daily life for the month of January alone, which
can be easily repeated twelve times for the twelve months of
the year.

Note. — We should advise the employment of initial letters
for the purposes of the table^ as saving time and space.

Ilfl

1>U

S J

TTI

i i I

f I

lllll=|a|-5

3 |SS
i °^6

PubUe Instrueiion. 75

By means of the Regulator, any one who may use it can re-
trace each morning in his mind the events of the preceding day,
which must have been employed either in a good or bad, satis-
factory or unprofitable manner. In whatever way it has been
passed^ all is consummated. The irresistible stream of time
has engulphed the past day. But for the very reason that the
latter exists no more but in the memory, that its results are
no longer susceptible of change, it is important that the
fruits of observation should be stored ; the moment is come
to select and preserve in the most analytical, abridged, and
complete manner, all that has permanent value. A single
inspection of the line thus traced is an indirect but eloquent
lesson ; and it will be difficult, when making the entries in
their appropriate columns^ and considering and comparing
the lines which follow one another in each page, to avoid
being induced, by the force of reflection and reason, either to
modify the conduct by the experience of the preceding day,
or to resolve upon continuing the same course of action, if
conscience has allowed a sign of contentment to be affixed
to the recording line.

Man has a body, and thence a physical life and physical
wants. He has a 8oul> and moral wants ; an hitelligent spirit,
and wants and relations intellectual ; he has a nature eminently
social, and with it wants, relations, interests, and social du-
ties, in regard to his kind.

The Regulator unites the two advantages of recalling
exactly the infinite diversity and degrees of occupation, of
circumstance, of impression, of feeling, of pain, and pleasure,
which are the elements of life's fugitive essence ; and of giving
a great regularity to the actions, of which it classes metho-
dically the most important results, without fatiguing the mind
or exacting any other sacrifice than a conscientious record
of the thoughts for the space of five minutes each morning.

But if the Regulator may powerfully contribute to in-
culcate good habits — the object of moral education — the
presence of a master under the name of Educator specially
charged with this branch of teaching, is not less desirable
from the salutary influence which he may exert over the
minds of his pupils ; for although God in creating man has
implanted in his breast the capacity to understand that eternal
principle of morality, ' Do unto others as you would they
should do unto you:' this principle is not morality, but its
germ. Man must become enlightened before he can know
that which he ought wisely to choose for himself. The igno-
rant man errs through ignorance, and not through malice, and
may commit evil even in doing to others that which he would
wish done to himself. The savage of the wilds of America

76 Public Insiruciiofh

8laya his vanquished enemy ; but when he is in his turn con-
queredi he submits to the laws of war^ and murmurs not at
his fate. The experience of ages has not yet taught him that
the different tribes are not different races of beings^ like tigers
and panthers, and that men are formed for unity and love, and
not for strife and destruction. It is necessary, therefore, to
wake into life the moral feeling. Now this is precisely the office
of the Educator. We desire to see established in every school
a class solely for moral education, which should be entrusted
to a master whose information and intelligence might enable
him daily to treat progressively, with clearness, method,
and simplicity, all the moral questions which have relation
to ordinary life. These conversations, carried on in a familiar
manner, and stript of that pompous display of severity which
certain instructors affect, often only to mask the extent of
their own ignorance, should be presided over by the teacher,
who might point out the questions in morality which ought
to be discussed, by commencing the development of them
himself, and afterwards make a summary of each discussion.
The importance and efficacy of such discussions in forming
the moral dispositions of the pupils who are put in posses-
sion of the Regulator would soon be perceived. How greatly
would they develop, enlighten, and fortify those dispositions !
The whole difficulty in such an undertaking hinges upon the
mode to be adopted to ensure a proper choice of masters.

We have heard that in some places in Switzerland, the
situations of primary schoolmaster were publicly disposed
of to the candidates whose terms were the lowest. The
same custom existed in Ban de la Roche, before the care
of that village was conBded to M. Stuber, predecessor of
the celebrated Oberlin. At Bile, half a century ago, they
drew the professors by lot. We do not intend to occupy
ourselves with these singular modes of election ; but we .
shall speak of the usual methods adopted in the choice of
teachers.

Examinations are in our opinion very objectionable. The
qualities to which they have reference are not precisely those
which it is most important that the master should possess.
The degree of proficiency in science which the candidate may
have attained is the principal point to which inquiry is di-
rected; but. the talent for placing science within the reach of
youths and rendering it interesting to them, the power of judg-
ment, the moral direction of the ideas, and the intellectual
capacity, are very imperfectly appreciated. Nevertheless,
these powers are what should be imperatively required in an
instructor ; for, with zeal and natural capacity, knowledge is
readily acquired by study.

PubKc ImtructiQn. 77

M. Rendu was Head of the College of ChaiAbery. The
situation of Professor of Physics became vacant, and some un-
foreseen obstacles prevented the candidate for whom the place
was intended from taking possession of it. Although M. Rendu
was entirely unacquainted with the science, yet rather than
allow the students to remain idle, he set himself to teach it,
adopting for his text-book the work of M. Biot. The attempt
was successful ; he was engaged to continue it ; and it was
not long before he produced an original and interesting
memoir on a point in physics, which attracted the attention and
received the encouragement of the great philosopher of Paris
whom he had taken for his guide. It has since had the honour
of being printed in several scientific collections.* It was only
when the teaching was consigned to the Jesuits, that M. Rendu
quitted the chair which he had filled with so much credit.

We are far from wishing to deduce from this example, that
we ought not to require from candidates a knowledge of the
science to the teaching of which they devote themselves ;
we only desire to show that the condition which is prin-
cipally insisted on when situations are conferred by exami-
nation is perhaps not the most essential.

Examinations have the further inconvenience of alienating
from the profession of teachers men who have already acquired
a reputation, and who dislike to compromise.it by putting
themselves in competition with young persons much less
learned than themselves, but who have the details of the
elementary parts of science fresher in the memory, and to
whom the feeling that they have nothing to lose gives an
advantageous boldness. When it was determined to elect
in this manner the professors in the faculty of medicine in
the University of Pavia, the celebrated Scarpa, who disap-
proved of this mode of election, and saw men the best dcf-
serving to be appointed professors thrown out by it, deter-
mined^ in his vexation, to resign his chair.

But, on the other hand, do not elections with closed
doors, where no guarantee is required from the candidates,
offer facility to intrigue and favoritism ? Even when the
electors are scrupulous, in the absence of all means of form-
ing a correct judgment, they may easily be persuaded that
the person who is dear to them best deserves the appoint-
ment. In both systems, therefore, there seems but a choice
of evils. To obviate the difficulty, we propose that a normal
school should be founded, similar to that established and now
flourishing in the canton of Argovia.

In 1822, the grand council of the canton decreed the esta*

* Observations on the Crystallization of Bodies.

78 Public Jnitruetim.

blifthment of a normal ichool for educaiing ichootmasterSf
designed not only to instruct those who desire to embrace
that profession, but also to furnish the means of improvement
to persons who are already engaged in the business of public
instruction. A sum of 6000 Swiss livres (about 8900 francs)
was set apart for providing professors, and the means of
teaching ; and for furnishing aid to those students who were
unable to support themselves, or obtain the aid of their com-
mune. The students, to the number of thirty, are required
to possess the preliminary knowledge which is taught in the
elementary schools. The course of instruction lasts two
years, and includes foreign languages, arithmetic, elementary
geometry, natural history in its relations to rural economy,
the mechanical arts, and daily wants } physical geography,
national history, singing, organ-playing, and the elements of
design. They pay particular attention to the moral instruc-
tion of the scholars, whom they also exercise in the art of
teaching the various sciences to others. The eminent ser«
vices which the Normal School at Paris has rendered to
public instruction are well known. This school furnishes
excellent professors, not only to the institutions of Paris, but
to those of the departments. A great number of its students
have acquired an honourable reputation as literary men, and
as instructors. M. Cousin completed his philosophical studies
in this illustrious place, where he was once tutor. Loyson,
whose early death is lamented, had also studied there, and
became afterwards one of the professors *.

The venerable M. Gu^routt, the translator of Pliny andCicero,
was for a longtime director of the Parisian normal school, and
was beloved as a father by numberless pupils. No establish-
ment promises more important services to public instructors.
Even in the kingdom or Benin, M. r£spinat, a schoolmaster
in S^n^gal, has been directed bv the monarch of that African
kingdom to found in his capital a Normal School of Mutual
Instruction ; and at Buenos Avres a like establishment has
been also founded, to teach all those who are called to the oflSce
of public instructors. When will England follow the example ?

* Mrs. Willard, an American lady, the author of many esteemed works on
education, after havinf; founded in her own country, at some distance from New
York, a normal school for the education of females, which has for many years
furnished a numher of skilful and enlightened instructresses, conceived the ge-
nerous thought of proceeding to Athens to establish there a similar institution,
in which females should be fitted to become teachers, and afterwards diffuse in
the different parts of Greece the benefits of that education which tbey had r&>
ceived. Such efforts cannot be too highly admired and encouraged. Mrs. Willard
has no wish that her sex should remain behind, and not participate in the pro-
gress of civilizaUon«

(70 )

PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN GREAT BRITAIN.

The following are the Treasury regulations for the appropri-
ation of the sum of 20^0002. voted during the last session of
Parliament in aid of private subscriptions for the erection of
schools for the education of the children of the poorer classes in
Great Britain.

1st. That no portion of this sum be applied to any purpose
whatever except for the erection of new school hou$es> and that^
in the definition of a school house^ the residence for masters or
attendants be not included.

2nd. That no application be entertained unless a sum be
raised by private contribution* equal at the least to one-half of
the total estimated expenditure.

3rd. That the amount of private subscription be received,
expended* and accounted for* before any issue of public money
for such school be directed.

4th. That no application be complied with unless upon the
consideration of such a report* either from the National School
Society or the British and Foreign School Society* as shall
satisfy this Board that the case is one deserving of attention*
and there is a reasonable expectation that the school may be
permanendy supported.

5th. That the applicants whose cases are favourably enter*
tained be required to bind themselves to submit to any audit of
their accounts which this Board may direct* as well as to such
periodical reports respecting the state of their schools and th^
number of scholars educated as may be called for*

6th. That* in considering all applications made to the Boards
a preference be given to such applications as come from large
cities and towns* in which the necessity of assisting; in the
erection of schools is most -pressing* and that due inquiries
should also be made before any such application be accecled to*
whether there may not be charitable funds* or public and pri-
vate endowments* that might render any further grants inex*
pedient or unnecessary.

It appears that the only object at present contemplated by
the education measure of>the last session is to distribute a sum
of public money in aid of private subscriptions for the building
of schools for the poor« I'his grant is merely a part of another
measure which was considered by its advocates as of vital imports
ance. One principle* however* is distinctly recognised by this
vote of 20,000^., which may probably in time lead to useful results.
It i9 now admitted that it is just to appropriate some portion of

80 Public ImtrucHon in Great Britain.

the public income to the purposes of education in England.
But as this grant is unaccompanied by any measure calculated
or designed to make public instruction a branch of our polity,
we do not look in it for any other positive principle than that
of the expediency of drawing on the public income for the
purposes of public education. It was no doubt a feeling
of the impossibility of cx)ntrolling the proper outlay of this
money> there being no department of government specially
charged with these duties, that led to the determination of
placing it at the disposal of the two great education societies
(see No. 4.) And indeed, in the present state of our national
education, it would be difficult to say what else could have been
done. Education is yet no part of the concern of government ;
a sum of money is granted for the purpose of building schools,
and nobody can know so well where schools are wanted as the
National School Society, which has spread its branches all over
England, and the British Society, which, though older in years,
and not inferior in zeal, is comparatively limited in the extent of
its operations. The efiect of this measure then will be, to add
to the number of schools under the direction of these two so-
cieties ; and though many may be of opinion, that the prin-
ciples of neither of these societies are exa^ctly those on which a
system of universal instruction should be based, yet they may
consider it some advantage that schools at least will increase,
and that buildings will be provided which may perhaps some
time be opened to pupils on a more comprehensive plan. But
we do not clearly comprehend how the two societies will agree
to divide this grant between them. The National Society will
not and cannot approve of any application to the Treasury,
which does not proceed from parties disposed to adopt alto-
gether their plans, and with them the doctrine and discipline of
the Established Church. Nor can the other society act differ-
ently; they cannot approve of any application, except from
subscribers, who will open their school on the terms of the
British Society, which, however, as is well known, are of a
more comprehensive nature than those of the other society.

The practical working of the thing will probably be this.
Wherever a sufiicient number of persons can unite to raise the
necessary sum, they will apply to one or other of the societies
for their approval, and will, of course, form, to all purposes, an
integral part of such society. As the National Society is the
more wealthy and influential, it is probable that it will be
enabled to secure much the larger portion of the grant : the
superior zeal of the other society (for nobody can doubt that
it really is more zealous in the diffusion of education) will
hardly be able, we think, to make up for its inferiority in
wealth and other means of influence.

Public Instruction in Or eat Britain, 81

The friends of a still more comprehensive system of educa-
tion might wish to have seen some of this money otherwise
employed, as, for instance, in the establishment of normal
schools for the proper training of teachers. The parliamentary
grant may increase the number of schools, but it will not tend,
in the slightest degree, to improve the teachers ; and, of course,
can exercise no really beneficial influence on national instruc-
tion. But it is much easier to find fault with the mode of
applying this money than, under existing circumstances, to
have devised a, better. When the government is seconded by
a House of Commons able and, wilUng to handle the subject
of National Education, it will not, we trust, be wanting in zeal
towards the accomplishment of this great object, nor deficient
in the practical wisdom which will enable it to diffuse sound
and really useful knowledge, without offending, in the slightest
degree, the religious feelings of any sect, or party.

ON THE STUDY OF GEOGRAPHY. •

A coMMEaciAL country, with numerous and extensive foreign
possessions, — a country whose soldiers and ships are found on
almost every coast, and whose travellers visit every country,
would seem peculiarly adapted to be the centre of geographical
knowledge. That Great Britain has made, and is daily making,
very large additions to our knowledge of the earth's surface, is
a fact which will be generally admitted ; and that hitherto all
these accumulated facts have been turned to very little ac-
count in systematizing our knowledge is another fact which
appears to us equallyindisputable. The nation that has now for
several centuries made discovery, colonization, and foreign
conquest, whenever opportunity offered, part of its political
system, had not, three years ago, even a geographical society,
and at present there is not, we believe, a single public teacher
of geography in the universities and colleges of Great Britain,
with the exception of the professor lately appointed in the
London University *. The London Geographical Society
now forms a point of union for those who are interested in
the knowledge of the earth's surface, and by its Journal it
invites and offers facilities to the publication of many valuable
contributions, which otherwise would never appear. The
formation of a library and a collection' of maps^ which also
are part of the Society's plan, together with the communica-
tions existing between this and foreign societies, will tend

* Geography has been publicly taught at the London Mechanics* Institute
for some time.

Oct., 1833~Jan., 1834. G

83 On the Study of Geogfaphy.

to concentrate a great variety of information which hitherto
has been scattered and comparatively useless. The limited
funds of the Society, and the great expense and rislc of expe-
ditions^ place all direct discovery beyond the sphere of the
Society's operations. And, indeed^ as a general rule^ such
discovery is best left to individual enterprise^ or it belongs
to the business of government. Yet a geographical society
ought to contribute indirectly towards discovery by pointing
out to travellers what has been already done, by furnishing
them with a set of proper and well arranged questions and
directions, and by giving such countenance as each individual
or undertaking may merit. The holding out a promise of a
prize for a certain thing to be done, or for the writing of a
certain essay, for which individuals must be competitors, as the
phrase goes, appears to us not likely to do any good ; and we are
glad to see that hitherto the Society has not had the oppor-
tunity of awarding any premiums of this kind. They have been
given, as we hope they ever will be, to individuals who had
done some service, without troubling themselves about the
Society's offers. The Society, when it has a premium to
dispose of, should look around and confer it on some indi-
vidual whose services are such as will render the conferring
and the accepting of the premium equally creditable to both
parties. The Geographical Society's views cannot, we think,
go beyond what we have mentioned ; nor do we see any
way in which such a Society is likely to improve geography
as a science. Some persons, however, differ from us tn
opinion on this last point, and think that the Geographical
Society may in many ways tend to raise geography to the
rank of a science. This opinion appears to us to be founded
on a misconception of the nature of a society ; and in con-
formity with this, as we conceive, erroneous notion, societies
are often blamed for not doing that for which they are by
their constitution altogether unsuited.

It is only by making geography an efficient part of early
instruction that we can expect to see a set of men formed,
who, being thoroughly acquainted with the proper objects
and limits of their inquiries, will set about classifying the
Innumerable facts with which geography has to deal, and
deducing from them legitimate inferences. Of course it will
be said that geography is already a part of instruction in every
school j this is true, and yet it is still far from having as-
sumed any shape that entitles it to the name of a science.
The term science has been generally applied, and sometimes
exclusively, to those branches of investigation which have
quantity for their subject, and which proceed on strict demon*

On the Study of Geography. 53

stfation. Thus it is applied to the pure mathematics^ and^
by an extension of the definition just given, to those bmnehes
of knowledge whose principles are founded on observation
and experiment^ and whose results are expressed by number.
It is not our intention to dispute the propriety of applying the
term science to other branches of inquiry^ into which the notion
of quantity does not enter. There is logical demonstration^
which is as convincing as any demonstration in which pure
number is concerned. But geography is a subject which,
from its nature, has been hitherto particularly vague and in-
definite. It is not a science of demonstration ; nor, like
zoology and botany, is it limited with precision by the nature
of the subject of inquiry : it treats of all things, or is said to
treat of all things, and this is the reason why it treats with
precision of nothing at all.

Geography, as the school-books tell us, is the description of
the earth, and then they refer us to its Greek etymology as
confirming the definition. On looking into these books,
we find that they are in general any thing but a description
of the earth; and yet a description of the earth's surface
is the proper and legitimate subject of geography. We alto-
gether object to the views of those who advise us to keep
the definition of geography somewhat vague, in order to
comprehend within it as much useful matter as we can. In
a good book of travels, we are glad to find every kind of in-
formation» and from such a work the botanist^ the zoologist,
and others, may glean those facts which bear more par-
ticularly on their several pursuits/ But when we are endea-
vouring to improve a science, or to convert a vague subject
into one, the first thing that we have to do is to fix its limits.

Geography will never deserve the name of a science, or of
knowledge^ till its facts are reduced as much as possible to
numerical representation ; and it is no objection to this that
many of its numerical representations must be merely ap-
proximative. It is better to know that the value of a fact
lies between 95 and 100 than to have no definite idea of it
at all.

Geography takes for granted the spherical figure of the
earth, but the astronomical determination of positions upon
its surface is one of its special objects. By the determina-
tion of a great number of coast positions, we arrive at a
notion of the exterior configuration of the land, as bounded
by water. The investigation of the tides, currents, &c., of
seas and oceans, is a subject extensive enough of itself, and
properly belongs to the hydrographer. To this separation of
hydrography and geography some objection has been made,

84 On the Study of Qeographtf.

but not yet supported^ as far as we have seen^ by any good
reasons. The study of rivers is generally admitted to be an
important part of geography : why then^ it is asked, not in*
elude hydrography also in the science ? It is a sufficient
answer to a mere objection put in the way of question, to
reply by asking another question : the proper answer to this
objection then will be — why should we include it ? The divi-
sion of the globe's surface into land and water seems a very
natural ouq, and the knowledge of this surface will, in our
opinion, be best forwarded by following the obvious division
which nature presents to us. We assign the rivers to the
geographer, because the hydrographer cannot trouble himself
about them any further than concerns their outlets and tide
water. It is in such places as these^ and at the heads of bays
and inlets, that the hydrographer and geographer will some*
times meet and have a little friendly communication \ nor
will either of them, if they are wise, seek to enlarge his domain
by encroaching on that of his neighbour.

The next object of the geographer, and, in fact, his great
business, is to determine the form of the surface of the
land. If we knew the latitude and longitude of each place,
and its perpendicular elevation above any given level, we
should know all the irregularities of the earth's surface,
which, however trifling they may be when compared with
the whole mass, are of the highest interest to man, as
without them the earth would not be suited for his habi-
tation. The ascertaining of the actual and relative heights
of places on the earth, which may be termed hypsometry
(height-measurement), is a branch of geography that re-
quires both to be extended and rendered more exact. But
the number of points that we can ever expect to ascer-
tain will always form a small part of the surface of a country,
and we must therefore have recourse, by way of supple-
ment, to geographical descriptioii. This branch is neces-
sarily less exact than the former, inasmuch as it must
avail itself nearly altogether of words, which never convey
with perfect accuracy either the facts of nature or the im-
pressions of a writer. It necessarily involves the use of a
great many terms, such as mountain, valley, plain, which,
from their nature, can never be defined with such accuracy
as to render the use of them altogether free from objection.
Still we must attempt, partly by numerical values, whenever
this is practicable, and partly by description and by repre-
sentation on paper, to give as accurate an idea as we can of
the mountains, valleys, plains, and other irregularities which
mark the surface of a country. Here the pursuits of the

On the Study of Geography. 85

geographer and the geologist have certain points of contact.
The geologist, though his inquiries are more particularly
directed to the position of rocks and the nature of their con*
tents, cannot overlook the general configuration of the sur-
face, especially if he is endeavouring to trace the effects
which are due to the action of running water. Nor will the
geographer, though his special object is to ascertain the
form of the surface, neglect to observe such changes as are
evidently in progress and are altering the character of that
which it is his object to estimate. The general description of
mountains, including the direction of the main masses, the
junctions of different groups, the elevations of the chief
points, the determination of the drainage-boundaries, &c., is
now classed under the title of Orography. This term excludes,
or it ought to exclude, all that refers to the particular mineral
composition of mountains : it treats specially of their form.
But in doing this, in describing scarped sides, flat tops^
needle peaks, or broad round backs, vi^e conceive it is the
business of the geographer to state, in general terms, the
nature of materials which have such definite and character-
istic forms.

The next important branch of geography is the descrip-
tion of the sources, course, and volume of rivers 5 the de-
scription of fresh water lakes is included in this head. This
branch leads to a more minute examination of those bounda-
ries which determine the course of the waters that rise from
the earth in springs, and of those which, descending in rain,
find a more inmiediate channel by which to pass off. The
drainage of a country is, as a general rule^ marked out into a
number of great divisions, often called, whether with pro-
priety or not, basins ; each basin has its main drain, with a
number of smaller drains running into it. To determine the
limits of each great basin, or the boundary lines of the sur-
face drained by the great rivers of a country, is a necessary
step towards an accurate knowledge of it.

The study of rivers leads to a more careful consideration
of the slopes along which their waters descend towards
the general recipient, which is either the ocean, an inland
sea, or a lake. These slopes are generally bounded by high
land on each side, constituting, with the lowest level be-
tween them, what are called valleys. The form of these
valleys, through which we trace rivers, is almost infinitely
diversified, and the study of them may be said to be the
most interesting and useful part of geography ; they are the
chief seats of man's abode, and of his cultivation, and their
waters give life and activity to his social intercourse. Various

86 On the Study of Qeography.

names have been already given to valleys, according to thetr
form, and in countries where the features of nature are oa
a large scale^ some of these names are appropriate and con-
vey an accurate idea. When a river runs in a long valley,
bounded by parallel ranges of high land^ of which we have
numerous striking instances, its course lies in a longitudinal
valley. But the course of a river is often changed, and it
runs from a valley of the kind just described either into ano^
ther valley or a completely different kind of country ; this
passage is generally effected by its waters, taking a direction
which makes a considerable angle with the line of the moun*-
tains and passes through them by a circuitous winding course,
forming a succession of transverse valleys, or by one short
and narrow passage^ to which the name valley cannot be
given ; the name of gorge has been sometimes used to ex«*
press a passage of this kind *, But a more accurate exami-
nation of valleys will show the propriety of some additional
terms ; for as valleys have evidently been produced in more
ways than one, so their forms are too various to be included
in two or three terms. Some rivers do not run in valleys
according to any definition of the term valley as it now exists.
Many rivers which flow through a flat region have probably
grooved out a channel in the earth, to allow a free passage for
their waters. The depth and breadth of these grooves are
evidently dependent on the volume of water and the nature
of the ground, and, we believe, are deepest in all countries
where the occasional floods are the greatest. A river may
thus hollow out a channel several hundred feet deep, as
the Ohio river, in some parts, has done, till it has made a
passage deep enough to hold any body of water that may
come down. These excavations look like valleys, and are
called so, but they seem to us to require a different name
from other valleys. The hills which bound some parts of the
Ohio and other rivers of the Mississippi valley have been
sometimes appropriately called River-hills: seen from the
water they present slopes, and sometimes tolerably steep
sides ; but their tops are the level of the plain, and have
been cut into hill shape by the lateral streams which fall into
the main channel f. This theory of the formation of the bed
of the Ohio may be true or not : we give it here as it is given
by the authorities referred to ; and we do this merely with
the view of drawing attention to the actual form of the river's

* See Strabo's description of the Gorge of the Pyramus ; and the Passage of
the Potomac through the Blue Ridge, in Jefferson's description*

-)• See the quotation in James Stuart's America, ii. 402, &c., and Major
I^Dg*« Expedition to the Rocky Mountainii i. p. 38| &c« Parby*s View of the

On the Study of Oeography. 87

bed. As to the hypothesis itself, we may remarki that it is
not to be overthrown by a few loose comparisons with other
rivers which are of a different character. Those who will
take the pains to begin to study the surface of the United
States, will find they have yet much to learn ; for cousidered
as a whole, the country presents in its physical character and
its climate many features which, if not peculiar to it, are
certainly not seen in most parts of the world. Those who
wish to look further into this subject, may consult Darby's
truly valuable work (p. 298, &c.) on the United States, with-
out the study of which, or an actual knowledge of the country,
any remarks upon the geography of the United States Qm
have but little value.

It would be desirable to have terms which should accuT
rately express the several great divisions of geography,
though we fear none can be proposed which would be uni-
versally received. There cannot, however, be much differ*
ence of opinion as to the propriety of admitting the following
divisions of the subject, which naturally arise out of the con-*
siderations already stated.

I. Topothesy ; the determination of the latitude and lon-
gitude of points on the earth's surface *,

II. Actography ; the special description of the form and
nature of coasts. The outline of them is determined by
No. I.

III. Hypsometry ; the determination of the elevation of
the earth's surface in general. It treats both of the eleva*
tion of level surfaces, and the depression and elevation of
irregular surfaces.

IV. Orography^ the description of mountains, is a branch
of No. III.

V. Potamography ; the description of rivers and fresh
water lakes.

It has been suggested that other divisions should be made^
to render the determination of the form of the earth's surface
complete. What data a man can ask for beyond I. and III.,
we are unable to conjecture.

To these five heads we think it advisable to add —

VI. Climatography ; the description of climate. It de-
pends mainly on I. and III., modified by numerous local
circumstances. ' Climatologyi- is geographical meteorology,
or the study of the properties of the atmosphere in the various

* T«ir«Sfri« u used hy Cicero ad Attic. I. 13, as synonymous with TMrtyfo^M,
This arose from his notions of position being very indefinite.

f We prefer the compound climatography for reasons sufficiently obvious.
For the same reason we distinguish between aj|thr(^logy and anthropography.

88 On the Study of Cfeography.

parts of the globe : it is consequently a part of physical geo*
graphy.* (Schow, Beitr&ge zur vergleichenden Klimatologie^
18270 The business of observing temperature^ winds, rain,
magnetic phtenomena, &c., is no doubt a distinct pursuit^ and
this branch of knowledge is only to be improved by long
continued observation made in many places. But it appears
to us to be the business of the geographer to collect and
compare the results of such observation made at various points
on the earth's surface, and to endeavour to deduce from them
general laws. If the geographer, who has continually to do
with astronomical position and elevation, does not attend to
this branch, we do not see whose business it is. A geographer
may be an observer, or not, of the astronomical phtenomena
which determine position ; he may measure the heights of
mountains, or he may learn these isolated facts from others :
but it is his special business to collect all facts bearing on his
science, to subject them to the tests of comparison with other
known facts, and to determine their relative value before classi*
fying them or drawing general conclusions from them. We
think the critical part of geography is hardly enough insisted
on. Till facts are in some way so marked as to show their re-
lative value, we do not see how geography can become more
exact. As the leaving of large blanks in maps indicates our
ignorance, and is a better plan than putting in rivers and
mountains of which we know nothing ; so in the geogra-
phical description of countries, it should be stated, of what
parts we know little, of what parts we know nothing ; and
the points about which knowledge is wanting should be par-
ticularly enumerated.

Beyond the six heads above-enumerated, the geographer^ in
our opinion^ should not go 3 and we think they will furnish him
with ample employment. It is not the business of the geo-
grapher to look under the surface of the earth : he leaves
that to the geologist. Nor is it his business to treat of the
distribution of animal and vegetable life over the globe : this,
we think, belongs to the botanist and zoologist, and though
it is a branch in which writers on botany and zoology are not
always very exact, it is desirable that they should labour to
improve a subject which belongs to no other branch of know-
ledge so closely as theirs. On this point;^ however, there is
much difference of opinion. Some think that the distribution
of plants and animals is an important part of geography ; and,
indeed, if any geographer will undertake to treat this depart-
ment satisfactorily without neglecting the rest, he will do
good service. But we apprehend that it will be found very
diflBcult for any one man, in the present state of our know-

On the Study of Qeographtf. 89

ledge, to treat all of them as completely as could be wished.
It is from a conviction of the necessity of limiting the objects
of geographical study, that we venture to suggest the omis-^
sion of this branch.

There is one animal whose geographical distribution is a
subject of great interest, the animal Man ; and it has often
been remarked, that countries are generally interesting in
proportion as they are connected with his history ; but par-
ticularly with the history of civilized man. The history of
the man, whom the races calling themselves civilized, stamp
with the name of barbarian and savage, is not generally con-
sidered to possess much interest. This is true to a certain
extent ; we all feel that those parts of the world which have
been the scene of great historical events recommend themselves
much more strongly to the imagination than newly disco-
vered countries inhabited by men usually termed savages.
But with the increase of our knowledge, the means that open
on us for mental gratification increase also. The inquirer
into nature findi^ something new in every portion of the
world, however wild and desolate ; and even the barbarous
inhabitants of our globe furnish us with abundant materials
of curious inquiry. We contemplate man as the highest in
the series of animals^ zoologically considered, and when
viewed with reference to his situation on the earth, his phy-
sical characteristics, his habits, and his language, as furnish-
ing an unbounded field for inquiry and speculation. This
branch of inquiry has not yet assumed among us, in ordinary
acceptation^ the distinction of a separate subject, which is one
reason why the numerous facts already known are very im-
perfectly arranged, and why curiosity is less actively directed
towards the accumulation of new ones. This branch of
knowledge has hitherto been generally left to geographical
description ; but it is evident that it can only acquire any
systematic shape and value by being made a distinct subject
of inquiry.

The term Anthropology, which is familiarly used in Ger-
many, has for its proper subject man considered as an intellec-
tual and moral being. It would be taking only a part of the
subject of anthropology, and giving an undue extension to
this part, if we were to make it include what we propose to
denominate Anthropography'*'* Anthropography should treat
of the varieties of the human race, as at present existing, and
as determined by those physiological characters in which the
best judges agree : it should mark out the countries in which

* See Immanuels Kant's Antbropologie in Pragmatischei: Hinsicht, p. 305,

do 0$i thi Stuffy nfQeographjf,

the^ noiv dwells the migrations of undoubted authenticUjr
which ha?e taken place among thero^ and the consequent
mixtures of races s it should also attempt a classification of
languages, marking such common points as are observable in
two or more languages* when the proof of original identity
is imperfect : it should not coniound under one raoe or
class, different races which, owing to various causes, have now
a common language : it should describe those domestic habits,
such as marriage, .&c.| and those religious ceremonies, which
are most indicative of national character* It is almost super«-
fluous to remark, that an infinite variety of facts, not easily
reducible to any general head, would be collected in a system
of Anthropography — all tending to make us better acquainted
with the various capabilities, and the strangely diversified
character of the animal man.

. The study of the division of the world into political com*
munities, the description of political boundaries, of cities^
towns, roads, canals, commerce, &c., which forms the main
subject of our ordinary books of geography, should in our
opinion be taught under the head of Statistics. It seems to
us that, to transfer all the mass of knowledge of this descrip-
tion, which is capable of a tabular form, to the province of
Statistics, should not be looked upon as an innovation merely
to help system*making : every subject gains in precision and
utility, when we find it occupying the place and embracing
the subjects which are clearly its due. The term Political
Geography has been generally used to separate the kind of
description and the collection of facts just alluded to, from the
real subject of geography, termed Physical or Natural, in
opposition to Political. We are not advocating the exclusion
of Political Geography from books which profess to describe
a country. When we read of a country, we wish to know
of its towns, public buildings, institutions, and roads, as
much as we do of its mountains and rivers, apd often much
more. Still we think that treatises on geography would be
improved by making the physical character of the country
a distinct and prominent part of the subject, and by re-
ducing Political Geography as much as possible to a tabular
form. A large part of the physical facts also may be classed
in tables, as they become known, for instance, extent of
sea^coast, heights of mountains, lengths of rivers, &c. ; and
we should prefer, instead of giving numbers as certain
when they are only approximations, to have a double co-
lumn, each containing a value between which we might be
sure that the true value would be found. This would perhaps

destroy a great deal of what is termed knowledge, by sub*

a p<

On the Study of Oeogfaphy. 91

itituting for it doubt and uncertainty ; but in the end knoW"
ledge would gain ; it would be less in amount^ but of better
qutdity.

Ttie question^ we think, may fairly be raised, whether^ in
teaching geography^ we ought to comprehend all the sub-
jects already mentioned, or whether we ought to strike out
some of them from the list. This question cannot be an-
swered without considering the age and acquirements of
the persons who are to receive instruction. If they possess
the proper elementary notions* and the necessary preliminary
knowledge, there seems no reason why the teacher should
not follow his own views of what will be most serviceable to
the class in the actual state of their knowledge ; he may
touch lightly on some parts, dwell more on others, and en-
deavour to direct the studies of his hearers by suitable re<
marks and references, rather than by minutely working out
any one branch. We can imagine that there may be many
very good courses which shall differ materially as to arrange-
ment, and the proportion allowed to each division. But we
do not think that in any course, geography properly so
called, that is, physical geography, should be mixed up with
political geography or statistics. By keeping the two sub-
jects quite distinct, by exercising a careful criticism on all
facts . presented as facts, by arranging them respectively in
their proper classes^ we shall begin to reduce to the form of
knowledge two of the most interesting branches of human
inquiry. One will teach us what the surface of the globe is^
and what nature has done for each portion to fit it for the
use of man : the other will show what man is doing for him-
self ; and by the brief symbols of number, well ascertained,
well digested, and then rightly interpreted, we shall learn
how man lives, we shall know his pains and his pleasures, his
knowledge and his ignorance, his virtues and his vices, his
progress or his retrograde movements, his coming into the
world, bis going out of it, and the period of duration assigned
to him, when his life is considered as a fraction of one large
integer. In this country, unfortunately, it will be long before
statistics can assume the form from which all these useful
inferences can be drawn.

The teaching of the elementary part of geography is
the most important. By a few years of judicious training,
boys will be fitted to receive and to profit by the courses
of a public lecturer, while at present we fear most youths
are so devoid of all exact elementary notions as to be
miable, as a general rule, to profit much by a complete
written course of lectures. It is therefore liiost necessary

92 On the Study of Geography.

that the improvement should begin with schools. The remarks
that we are going to make have reference only to instruction
in geography for youths, and they suppose that all the neces-
sary previous knowledge has been obtained. The method
used at Bruce Castle (Journal, No. XL p. 115, Slc.), of giving*
the elementary notions of geographical position by making
the youth familiar with the relative position of places near
him, and the mode of teaching him the use of a map, ap-
pear as judicious as any that could be chosen. When these
preliminary notions are obtained, it seems doubtful what is
the next best step: whether to demonstrate the spherical
figure of the earth, in such ways as are suitable to i youth*
ful capacity, and then to apply Agren's method for the pur-
pose of giving a general notion of the exterior configuration
of the land ; or to take the country in which the youth lives,
and for the present dropping all notions of astronomical posi-
tion, confine him to the determination of all points and places
by the measurement of straight lines from a fixed point.
If the latter mode is preferred, to which we incline, London,
of course, would be used for obvious reasons. By measuring
the distances of all the great salient points on the coast from
London, and laying them down according to their true bear-
ings, the student would get a pretty accurate notion of the
form of the island, and would become familiarized with the
mode of referring the position of one place to that of another
by its bearings. It would be desirable that he should ob-
tain by actual measurement on a tolerably accurate map the
length of sea-coast ; first by making the island into a polygon
by lines drawn from one salient coast point to another, and
then by measuring it along its sinuosities. The greatest and
least dimensions of the island should also be measured both
on meridians, on parallels, and also between other points on the
coast not under the same meridian or parallel. Methods of
approximating in a rough way to the area in square miles should
also be pointed out. It might then be observed how many miles
of coast there are for each square mile of area, and the fraction
expressing this ratio would be useful as a standard of comparison
for similar fractions deduced from the ratio of the coast line
and area of islands. The value of the fraction would at once
show the general nature of the coast line of any island or
insular mass of land, whether it was regular or irregular*.

In describing the coast as well as the mountains and rivers of
the country, a number of terms come immediately into use,
such as gulf, bay, sound, channel, promontory, sestuary, river,

* See BerghauR, Erste Elemente der Erdebeschreibung, p. 124, &c. Ber-
lin, 1830.

On the Study of Geography. 93

velocity of stream^ plain> plateau, marsh, &c.5 mountain^ moun*
tain-range, &c.

And here, as it appears to us, is an opening of considerable
difficulty. Many of these terms are vague in their meaning,
and have a different value when applied to different countries.
The name of gulf is not applied to any parts of our English
coast, though there are indentations to which it would be appli-
cable. We believe a notion of considerable magnitude is gene-
rally attached to the term gulf, though there are exceptions to
this ; but we are not aware that the term includes any notion of
form. As specimens of gulfs, there are the Gulf of Venice, Gulf
of Lepanto, Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of Mexico, Gulf of St. Lau-
rence, Gulf of Guinea, &c« It seems difficult to say what a guli
is, though it is certainly desirable to fix the meaning of such a
term. Of bays we have various specimens, from Pegwell Bay,
a shallow sandy flat on the coast of Kent, to Bantry Bay in Ire-
land. Of foreign bays, we find the Bay of Biscay, Chesapeake
Bay, Algoa Bay, the Bay of Bengal, &c,, from which it appears
difficult to say what are those characters which enable us to dis-
tinguish a bay from a gulf. It may be said that this is all trifling,
and that such objections are mere quibbles, and that we all know
what is meant by the words when applied to a particular gulf or
bay. But any such answer as this appears to us entirely insuffi-
cient. We do not expect that people will forthwith call the Gulf
of Mexico and Pegwell Bay by their new and more appropriate
terms as soon as they are announced to the world ; but if there
be any marked characters of form, magnitude, position, &c.,
which will enable us to classify the gulfs, bays, &c., under certain
heads, so that when we hear of a new gulf or bay, we have at
least one correct idea suggested by the word, something would
be gained* If this cannot be done, so much the worse for geo-
graphy, which must always remain, as many wish it to do,
rather loose and indefinite.

There is some difficulty about promontories, capes, heads,
headlands, points, noses, though we think this difficulty is not
insuperable. The word promontory might be used in a very de-
finite sense to express the bluff projecting termination of a moun-
tain in the sea ; but there is no reason why it should be restricted
to such a piece of land terminating in the sea. It is capable of
being applied equally well to similar abrupt terminations of
mountains on the edges of plains. Cape and head are merely
the same name in two different languages ; but we are not at
all sure that they are used with much precision. The word
cape is certainly applied both to low and high land projecting
into the ocean ; but it is clearly desirable to have distinct
names for these different kinds of projections. Nose, naze, or

04 On the Studjf of Qeogrofky.

nesB, is not very common in England ; but frequent in Scotland,
and we find it also in Denmark : we have in England Sheerness^
Dungeness^ the Naze, &c. All these terms perhaps would
come under some of the more general denominations of promon^
tory, or capes, if they were well defined. It would not appear
very difficult to divide the different projections of land into the
sea into classes, according to some one, two, or more character'^*
istics ; it might be desirable to retain the usual names of cape,
&c., adding to them a distinctive term by which each would be
referred to its proper class.

As to mountains, the difficulty is great, for nothing is so in*
definite as the word mountain. Elevations which are only hills
in one country are mountains in another ; and even in the same
country the point at which a hill becomes a mountain is always
a little uncertain. The remedy for this is to have geographically
only one name to indicate eJl elevation ; the altitude of each
would be one element by which its more specific character
would be determined. Next to elevation, the nhapt of mountains
or of high land requires consideration. Land may be elevated
and yet flat ; there may be an ascent to it on one side, which
looks like the slope of a hiU or a mountain ; but on ascend*-
ing to the top of the slope we may find an extensive level^
declining so imperceptibly as to convey no other idea than that
of a great plain. Or a mountain may have two opposite slopes
of different inclination, with what is called its summit consist-
ing of a level plain. Such a level is found on one of the sum-
mits of Olympus in Asia Minor, and indeed they exist in all
hilly countries. Hence in connexion with elevations of the
earth's surface, we have various kinds of plains : we have river--
plains, hiU'plai7is, mountain-plains (opfmiiw, Strabo), and
no doubt other kinds of plains. We by no means despair of
seeing names given to these different kinds of flat lands, which
will be favourably received and adopted. The term plateau,
or table land, seems to be sometimes used as indicating high
flat lands as distinct from lower flat lands; but even if it
obtains currency in this sense, it is by no means sufficient*.

We have before spoken of valleys. A valley we find is often
defined very loosely, * as the low ground between mountains,
and as generally traversed by a river.' From this definition it
must follow that a great many rivers flow in valleys for only a
small part of their course, and some certainly flow in no valleys at
all. It might, however, possibly be useful to consider all streams
as flowing in valleys, provided we assign to these valleys specific

* Sed Bergliaus, p. 42, &c. His division appears founded too much on 1>afe
eleratioD, which we think iusuffioient.

On the Study of Oeogtaphyi 05

tiames^ derived from some one or two properties by which they
are characterized.

There seems to be nd method of imprinting on the memory
a tolerably correct outline of the great boundaries of the land
and water on the globe, except by some method similar to that of
Professor Agren — fSee Journal, No. XI.p. 27, &c.). Andwethink
there can be no difference of opinion at all on the necessity of
teaching boys, or rather, according to Agren's plan, inducing them
to teach themselves, under what parallels and meridians all the
great limiting points of the land are placed. For instance, a boy
should be able to refer from memory such points as the Cape of
Good Hope,Cape Verde>Cape Guardafui, the Straits of Gibraltar,
the most southern point of Spain, the most southern point of the
Morea (not the most southern point of Europe, as is sometimes
stated), the mouth of the Rhine, &o.> to their right astronomical
position on the earth's surface. Such a bare outline as this, if a
boy learned nothing at all beyond it, would save him from much
confusion and numberless ridiculous errors. But this frame-
work, when gradually filled up, would present to the mind a
number of subdivisions, to each of which the pupil would
readily refer all isolated fkcts, as they occur in various readings,
or whenever they are presented to him with sufficiently accurate
data ; he thus would acquire a real geographical picture of the
earth, the great outlines of which might be continually approxi-
mating more and more to accuracy without deranging the gene-
ral impression. In a similar way he would print on his me-
mory and imagination the general direction of the great
mountain ranges, and the exact position of their more re-
markable points. Both for those who make geography their
Special study, and for the botanist, zoologist, and geologist, such
a foundation of geographical knowledge is absolutely indispen-
sable. In all tne three last departments of knowledge here
alluded to, can we doubt that many erroneous generalizations,
and often inconsistent assertions, would be checked if a man
always had this fundamental knowledge of geography ? Men
cannot always write with maps before them, nor are men
always willing to be making constant references to such
very troublesome monitors as good maps are; sometimes
most unkindly overturning a whole heap of hypotheses, inge-
nious conjectures, and pleasant, easy, self-satisfying generali-
zations.

To acquire an accurate and at the same time a complete
geographical picture of a country, we must see it represented
under various forms ; we must have in fact a series of maps
with the same outline, but a different filling in. Our own island,
for example, might be represented, first, with a bare coast out-

96 Onthe Study of Geography.

line and the courses of the rivers. This should be studied till
the picture is distinctly impressed on the mind. In a second
map we would place the high ground and the rivers also. Other
maps might be constructed to show the artificial water system
of canals, in connection with the natural water system of rivers.
A map of roads, with all the great towns indicated, and all the
seats of manufacturing industry, would also be necessary ; and
other maps no doubt might be suggested. Such maps roughly
executed would soon be produced at a very moderate charge,
if a sufficient demand for them could be calculated on.

It is impossible, in our opinion, to urge too strongly the im-
portance of an exact knowledge o^ pontion on the earth's sur-
face. This knowledge is not only tne true basis of all geogra-
phical knowledge, but it is an indispensable element in every
science which has for its object the observation and the com-
parison of natural phenomena in different parts of the earth.
Without this knowledge, the geographer has laid no foundation
for his further pursuits, and the inquirer into nature will often
fall into error, which may sometimes seriously affect his con-
clusions.

Next to the teaching of the general configuration of coun-
tries, their coasts, mountains, and rivers, the most important
thing is climate, or the comparison of meteorological phae-
nomena, as ascertained at different points on the earth's sur-
face. This should, of course, be preceded by exact notions of
the phaenomena of the season, the length of day and night at
different points on the earth's surface, the modes of determining
the four cardinal points at any place, with the determination
of the sun's angular distance at rising and setting from the
east and west points at any season of the year, &c., the mode
of measuring the shortest distance between any two points
given in position on the earth's surface, reducing magnetic to
true bearings, &c. Without this preliminary knowledge we do
not see how the subject of climate can be treated satisfactorily,
even in an elementary way.

We have already excluded the geographical distribution of
plants and animals from the province of the geographer, with an
earnest request to botanists and zoologists to look carefully
after them, for nobody else can do it so well. But it does not
follow that, in teaching the great principles of geography, these
considerations should be entirely excluded. Plants and ani-
mals are, to a certain extent, the indications of climate ; and
it is a matter of curiosity and of great interest to compare
different points of the earth's surface, similar in position, but
differing in products, which may often be the indication of
some modifying cause of climate not hitherto investigated. If

National Instruction at Siurich. &?

it were possible either in schools or colleges for such instruction
to be given by a botanist and a zoologist, we are of opinion
that it would come better from them than from the geographer.
But till science be more subdivided with the view of injproving
it, it is much better that the geographical distribution of
plants and animals should be treated of by the teacher of
geography, than that so useful and attractive a branch of
knowledge should be left as vague as it now is.

NATIONAL INSTRUCTION IN THE CANTON OF ZURICH.

Thr canton of Zurich, with its 220,000 inhabitants and
691| square miles, has lately set an example, which well
deserves the imitation, or at least the attention, of greater
states. National instruction, which, till lately, laboured under
many imperfections, has been entirely re-organized. Though
there may be nothing novel or extraordinary in what has
been effected, yet the principles on which the law for the
organization of national instruction is based, are not only
highly to the credit of those who framed it, but of general
interest to all persons who wish to see the welfare and hap-
piness of society increased.

For the last ten years the deficient state of national instruc-
tion had been felt, but not till after the late change of the
government and constitution (in I8SfO) did the improvement
of national instruction become a general wish of the people.
It was made an article in the new constitution, that ' It is the
duty of the nation and its representatives to provide for the im«
provement of the instruction of youth. Government will, as
far as it is in its power, aid and support the different schools
and establishments for instruction/ Much was to be done for
village schools, in which the children of peasants, &c., (for of
poor families there are not many,) are instructed*. In the
town of Zurich, a technical school (Industrieschule), a gym-
nasium, and a university (Hochschule) have been established,
in which three separate colleges, a private technical school,
and a gymnasium, all of which existed before, are severally
incorporated. On increasing the salaries and the number of
masters, care was taken to intrust the instruction of youth
to able and proper persons. Many teachers and pvofessors
have been invited from Germany, and have accepted situa-
tions. The details of the law for national instruction are
drawn up with practical knowledge, and an acquaintance
with all the modern improvements in education.

* In many parts of the canton, particularly around the lake, the houses lie
scattered about without formidg reguUir villages*
Got., 1833.«-Jan^ 1834. H

dB Nati&nial Insthtction at Zurich.

We will here glre some extracts from the law itse1f> tind
an official report on it bjr the council of education. The
law begins :—

' National schools are to render the children of all classes active
in mind, useful to society, moral and religious.

* Therefore the ilate (government) orders the establishment of
common and higher national schools.

* The subjects of instruction in the common national ichooli are
to be: —

* 1. Elementary instruction (for pupils from six to nine years of
age ; the chief object of which is to exercise the different powers of
the mind).

* Language : exercises in speaking, thinking, memory, reading
and writing.

'Calculation: mental, and on the slate, practice in the four
rules.

' Form : distinguishing different forms, reducing them (o their
most simple elements, combining and classing them — (^preparation
for geometry).

* Elementary singing.

' 2. Practical (real) instruction (for pupils from nine to twelve
years of age. The object is now to impart knowledge).
' Language : grammar, themes.
' Arithmetic, as applied to business.

* Form and geometry.

* The most important facts of the history, gco^phy, and the
constitution of the country.

' Outlines of general geography, and geography of Europe.

* The most remarkable features of general history.

* Natural history and geography, with respect to farming and
trades.

' 3. Cultivation of taste.

' Reading poetry, and learning it by heart ; singing, drawing,
calligraphy.

' 4. Religious instruction.

' Sacred history in an abridged form. Developing and cultivating
moral and religious feelings and notions, as a preparation for the
religious instruction of the church, (which is entirely separated frotti
that of the school.)

* Besides the imparting of knowledge and accomplishments, the
chief object of the method of teaching is always to be, the cultivation
of the understanding.

' Pupils above twelve years of age are obliged to have six lessons
a week at the common national schools^ unless they have entered a
** higher'* school, as a gymnasium, &c.'

^ As there are nO organs in the churches, hymns and larger
pieces of sacred music are learned in the school ; and be-
sides the regular lessons^ there is a weekly meeting (gene-
rally on a Sunday) for practising the music to be sung at

National Instruction at Zurich, 99

divine service, at which meetings all the young people before
thiey are confirmed (which cannot take place till they have
passed fifteen) ihust be present.

* No pupil may stay away from the lessons except from neces-
sity. A pupil who has not lefl school, (they leave at fifteen,) cannot
enter any service, unless his employer engages to let him attend
school at the regular hours. Parents, guardians, &c. can be fined
a certain sum a day for neglecting to let their children attend the
lessons regularly.

* During the holidays, which are from four to eight weeks in the
year, there is to be at least one lesson every day, at a convenient time.

The following regulations may be mentioned respecting
schoolmasters.

There is a seminary or establishment for preparing school*
masters for all the common national schools in the whole
canton.

' Every year from twelve to eighteen young men are received into
it from the canton of Zurich. There are sixteen exhibitions, each
100 franks (1 fr. = Is. 3d.) a year, held for two successive years.

A normal school (Musterschule) is attached to the semi-
nary, in which what has been taught in the seminary is to
be applied to practice. One who has left the seniinary^
(generally after two years* stay,) and has passed the exami-
nation, is ' candidate ' for any situation which becomes
vacant. In case of a vacancy, three masters out of those
who apply for it are selected by the council of education,
and from among these three one is chosen by the parish in
tvhich the situation is vacant.

* Every year there are four meetings, under the direction of the
council of education, of all schoolmasters within a certain district,
who are obliged to appear, as well as all candidates. It is the
object of these meetings that the schoolmasters may continually
improve themselves ; 1, by teaching, and that both with respect to
method and address ; 2, by treating on questions referring to certain
points of education ; or by making extracts from important works
on the same subject ; 3, by communicating particular views as to
school matters, or facts collected from experience ; 4, by diffusing
the knowledge of good school-books. Every member of these
meetings is to write one treatise every three mouths, all of which
are sent to the council of education.'

Three prize-questions are proposed every year to all
schoolmasters.

At every meeting a reading club is to be formed, in order
to provide the schoolmasters and candidate^ with books
containing useful and necessary information about their pro-
fession.

H 2

• 1* *m

100 Natimdl tn^trilctien at Zikrich

' Higher ichoolt,

* Government provides all citizens with the means of cultivating^
the useful arts and sciences according to their own choice.

* To this end it establishes a canton school above the commoa
national schools, and a high school (Hochschule) or university.

' The canton school is divided into a gymnasium and a technical
school (Industrieschule).

* The gymnasium is a preparatory school for those who wish to
devote themselves to the learned professions.

* The subjects of instruction in the lower gymnasium (for pupils
from twelve to sixteen years of age) are: religion, Latin {from its
rudiments)^ Greek, mathematics, geography, history, singing, in-
struction in drawing, calligraphy.

* In the upper gymnasium (for pupils from sixteen to niueieen
years of age) :

* First (lowest) class,

* Religion, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages, German Ian-,
guage and literature, mathematics, natural history, and geography.

* Second class,

* Latin, Greek language and literature^ Hebrew language, Ger-
man language and literature, history, mathematics, physics.

* Third (upper) class,

' The same, mathematical geography ; introduction to the phi^ ,
losophkal studies,

' For all classes, singing.

* There are two public examinations in the year.

' Technical school.

* This school is for all those who follow technical professions,
and the different trades. It is divided into two parts.

* The lower technical school is for pupils from twelve to fifteen
years of age, and either prepares them for the upper, or finishes their
education for any of the common trades.

* The subjects of instruction are, religion, mathematics, natural
history, and physics ; geometrical and common drawing ; German
aud French languages ; history and geography ; practical arith-
metic ; singing, calligraphy.

* In the upper technical school it is lefl to the choice of every
student to take what lessons he pleases, but if once entered he
must attend them. Many of the students are engaged in busi-
ness during the greater part of the day.

' The subjects of the lectures are, mathematics, ^natural philo-
sophy ; geometrical and common drawing; commercial arithmetic,
and book-keeping ; the German, French, Italian, and English lan-
guages ; calligraphy.

* In the lower technical school there is one public examination
every year.*

For the whole canton school there are lessons in gymnas-
tics, swimming, and fencing.
The rectors of the gymnasium and the technical school are

' ■*" I

National Instruction at Zurich. 101

chosen for two years by, and from among, the different
masters.

Every pupil, on entering the canton school, pays 4 franks
(=5s.) ; and according to tlie nnmber of his lessons he pays
to the school from 1 6 to 40 franks a-year. Part of the salary of
the masters depends on the number of pupils in their classes.

Several * higher* schools, called district schools, have
been newly established in the country (corresponding to
the lower part of the gymnasium, and of tiie technical school
at Zurich), which are chiefly intended to diffuse a greater
amount of sound knowledge and useful accomplishments
among the middle classes of society, who consist, m this
canton, of tradespeople and farmers.

• The Univerdty,
• The object of the university is partly lo cultivate and to extend
the general province of all science, partly to improve church and
state, by bestowing a superior education for the learned professions.'

In almost all respects the new university at Zurich re-
sembles the German universities ; and in all probability it
will soon be superior to many of them, both in the number
of students and the facilities which it affords for the study of
all the different sciences, especially for the study of medicine
and philosophy. Although many German states have issued a
regulation, in consequence of which a German student incurs
very great disadvantages by frequenting it, yet the number
of students in this second' half-year is increased by about
forty. It is to be hoped that several of the German princes
will soon repeal that regulation, the more so, as the present
government of Zurich seems likely, by a closer connexion
with Germany, to raise the cultivation of the whole state to
a level with that of its neighbours; to which indeed they
may well feel themselves entitled, by numbering among their
former citj^ens so many great and able men, such as Zu-
inglius, Gesner, Lavater, Pestalozzi, and many others.

The university and canton school have many advantages
over similar establishments in Germany. The situation of
the professors and teachers is more independent both oii
accoiint of their greater privileges and of the greater political
toleration. For instance, the government has no power to
remove any master from his situation without allowing
him a pension ; to which, however, the master is not forced
to consent, except he be found guilty in a court of justice
of something which renders him unfit to continue in his situ-
ation. Upon the whole, the university and canton school
bid fair to fulfil the expectations of their founders. Among
the students there seems to exist a particular taste for
natural history and natural philosbph^^ which (be ^ituaj^ion

102 Naiianal Instructiaif at ZHirkk.

and nature of the country certainly favour i^nd encouragcr
very much. The neighbourhood of the Alps offers the most
ample scope for the practical study of mineralogy, botany,
and geology. Many students are attracted by Professors
Oken and Schonlein, the latter of whom is considered \v\
Germany as one of the first pathologists of the present day "*"•
The catalogue of lectures already surpasses in number and
variety of subjects those of some* of the smaller universities
in Germany.

We add several regulations and remarks extracted from
the report of the council of education on the law of public
instruction.

' Form and geometry ('^ Formen- und Grussenlehre," being a
preparation for Euclid, and the subject of Euclid treated on Pesta-
lozzian principles) are introduced as new subjects of instruction
into the elementary and practical courses in the common national
schools. These two subjects have proved to be as excellent for
cultivating the mind, as they are of practical use to the future
tradesman, manufacturer, mechanic, and artist.

' The Council of Education was less inclined to prescribe the
introduction of a particular method, as in this very point the prin«
ciple of freedom is to be fully acknowledged. There is no one only
true method. For these reasons the council was contented with
pointing out the general features of a good method.

' With respect to religious instruction, the Council of Education
distinguishes thp religious instruction given at school from that
belonging to the church ; the former is the business of the school-
master, the latter of the minister. No pupil of a common national
school is to have religious instruction of the church, which instruc-
tion properly begins with the fifteenth year, and is continued till
confirmation.

' Only once in the year new pupils are to enter school afler the
upper divisions have lefl. By receiving them twice in the year the
number of classes is doubled, and teaching is rendered much
more laborious. It would be a great disadvantage to the public
schools,, and cause the greatest trouble to the masters, if it were
lefl to the choice of parents when to send their children to school ;
all children therefore who have passed their sixth year at the be-
ginning of the summer half-year, (at Easter,) are to enter school
at that time.

' The majority of the cpunpil decided, that ia future no difference
should be made as to the instruction of boys or girls in the common
national schools.

With respect to the salary of masters^ it is remarked :

* Without good schools, there is no welfare of the pation ; wi^H"
put good masters, there are no good schopls ; wfthout sufficient in*
come, po good masters.

' In a large school, where there is only one master, the pupils of

* See p. leH.

qh^ of \}\e Mpper c)as9^9 are obliged, ))y turos, po a9$|«t t)ie i^aster
according to his owii arfaqg^ment.

* The cultivation of science and of the i^seful arts is pot, by any
means, to cause a division of caste between their respective students,
who are therefore united in the one canton school at Zurich. They
have gymnastics together, which besides the inestimable advantages
they afford to physical development and the preservation pf in-
nocence, lead them to consider one another as common pupils,
indebted for the benefits of their education to the same state *•
Pupils of riper years may take i^dvantage of both divisions of the
canton school, especially in the study of ancient and modern lan-
guages. They may finally, afler passing the prescribed examina-
tion, proceed from one division into the other.

' Excepting the rare cases pf extraordinary talent combined with
physical strength, no youth can enter the university with advantage
before his nineteenth year. The life at college requires such strength
of mind and character, such an insight into the object aimed at dur-
ing such a life, into the nature and the proper study of science,
that entering it too precipitately is always followed by the most
serious consequences, such as squandering away the most precious
time for study ; adopting the master's opinions without any judg-
ment of one's o\yn ; fickleness, and a superficial acquaintance with
all necessary information.

' From a knowledge of what the present state of civilization
requires, the school (gymnasium) is to acquaint the pupil, by a well-
grounded study of the languages of the two principal nations of
antiquity, with the forms of their republican institutions, with the
grandeur of their public life — fre^d as it was from the shackles of
outward authority — with the wonderful productions of their poetry,
eloquence, and philosophy — and through these to inspire the sus-
ceptible youth with noble emulation. However, the instruction in the
ancient languages must never again preponderate to the neglect of
other no ]ess important subjects ; neither must it be carried on so
as to pay attention merely to the formal part, and little or none to
the real contents; but, by cultivating through the ancient ]an«
guages the formal part of understanding, a sense for the beautiful
and for truth is to be awakened at the same time.

' History presents the most appropriate matter for various ex-
ercises in the mother tongue.

* In the last class of the upper gymnasium the pupil sufficiently
prepared by this time is to be introduced to philosophical studies.
The subjects are logic, philosophy of the mind, and the proper ar-
rangement of academical studies.

' The study of the Hebrew language is required from those who
prepare themselves for the study of divinity.

* Students who have lefl the upper technical school may attend
university lectures.'

* This friendly feeling among pupils of different schools in the same or in
different places, has always attended tLe practice of gymnastics in GermaDy,
wherever they have been carried to any degree of perfection.

104 National Insiruciion at Zurich.

With respect to the uniting of three separate colleges
(which till lately existed at Ziirich)^ namely, one of \uw,
one of divinity^ and one of medicine, it is said in the
report : —

* Numerous facts, principally in the Catholic states of Germany,
and in France, prove, without leaving any doubt, that all such spe-
cial colleges do not answer the purpose ; indeed, they cannot follow
the general progress of science. Not only are young men of the
same country too early estranged from each other by different inte-
rests, but they take with them, and establish in society, their limited
views, and a spirit of caste ; and what is the worst, their studies,
instead of being enlivened and directed by the noble desire for the
inquiry af\er truth, become mechanical, and are directed by motives
of gain. For they always are in want of that common link of all
sciences, which philosophy (as this term is understood by all nations
of German stock) offers to the three faculties, of divinity, law, and
medicine.

* It will be indispensable for the future divine to make himself
thoroughly acquainted with the science and art of education, if he
wishes fully to satisfy the duties of his calling, and, as a true teacher,
to further the welfare of his fellow-creatures.'

The number of professors at the university is twenty-
five.

Besides these there are many private lecturers (Privat-
Docenten), many of whom are at the same time teachers at
the canton school.

The university counts at present about 200 students^ a
considerable number under the present circumstances.

In the canton school there are altogether 31 masters and
300 pupils.

The number of common national schools is 450
Schoolmasters engaged in them • . 500
Secondary (higher) schools ... 50

(Many of these are yet being established.)
Pupils below 12 years of age . . . 30,000
Pupils above 12 and below 17 . . . 20,000

50,000

or, nearly one-fourth of the whole population (220,000).

The state pays yearly for schools 80,000 Swiss francs, or
bOOOl. English money.

Zurich, Nov. 18, 1833.

REVIEWS.

GEOMETRY WITHOUT AXIOMS.

Geometry without Axioms, or the First Book of EuclitTs
Elements, S^c. Fourth Edition. By a Member of the
University of Cambridge. London : Heward, 5, Wellington
Street, Strand. 1833.

Two thousand years a^o, Euclid constructed the mould in
which the geometers who succeeded him were to be formed.
He adopted the simple plan of proving all he could, and very
distinctly stating how much he could not prov^ : and if he were
a prophet^ and if our idiom be capable of rendering his ideas, we
can imagine him saying to posterity, • Try your wits upon this ;
reason upon the fundamental properties of figure, and take a
revolution of the equinoxes, if you please, to settle whether or
not it be self-evident, that two straight lines cannot inclose a
space ; but I will take care that^ until you have come to a con*
elusion, the beginner shall always have satisfactory evidence of
geometrical truths ; for which, contest it as much as you please,
no two of you shall agree upon a substitute.'

His reward has been of a character as peculiar as the merit
of his system : medicine is not Galen, nor is history Herodotus;
but geometry is Euclid, and many a youth reads six books of
the Elements before he happens to be informed that Euclid is
not the name of a science, but of a man who wrote upon it.

But to this point the work has not come without much hand-
ling : scores of commentators have endeavoured to remedy the
admitted hiatus which exists in the theory of parallels, each of
whom has lived his day as viceroy over Euclid, until he has
been pushed from his stool by some other self-elected potentate.
Nothing is more singular in the course of this discussion, than
the ease with which the reigning, and therefore legitimate com-
mentator, has always been able to destroy the claim of right
put forward by his predecessors : and if we come on in our
turn, and fit out our little expedition against the powers that
be, we can assure our readers it is not with any intention of
ruling in their stead.

The improvers of geometry, among whom we place the de-
stroyers of axioms, the squarers of the circle, the trisect ors of
the angle, &c., may be divided into two classes, in the second
and more rations^l of which we conceive our $iuthor must be

106 Oeomeirt/ withoui AsionM.

placed. The first are ignorant and presumptuous: all they
know of geometry is, that there are in it some things which
those who have studied it most have long" confessed themselves
unable to do. Hearing that the authority of knowledge bears
too great a sway over the minds of men^ they propose to coun-
terbalance it by that of ignorance : and if it should chance that
any person acquainted with the subject has better employment
than hearing them unfold hidden truths> he is a bigot, asmpther^r
of the light of truth, and so forth. The members of this cla^s are
fond of half-texts only : they think they have all fovmd out things
which are * hid from the wise and prudent ;* but they do not
perceive, that neither in humility nor docility, can they fairly be
called ' babes.' The second species contains those who really
know what they reason about, and are desirous of employing
themselves in giving the thing one more trial, to see wnether,
with the lights of an older age, the difficulty may either be fairly
conquered, or at least demonstrated to be unconquerable. We
do not usually find in this class the self-satisfaction, the cer-
tainty, the propensity to sneer at others, which characterizes
the first ; but we must add, that it has become nearly extinct,
since the time when most men of science, competent to the
attempt, gave it up as hopeless.

The author* of the treatise before us, a Cambridg8 man,
evidently well acquainted with geometry, and with the labours
of his predecessors on tliis particular point, (see his Appendix)
has made one more attack upon the theory pf parallels. Since
M. Legendre, no knight of so much prowess has blown hig
bugle at the gate of this enchanted castle, to try the advepture
of the * three downright skarts and three crqss anes.* The
author calls his work an ' attempt,' expresses hiniself with per-
fect propriety as to his own pretensions, and, giving his opinion
on the desirableness of getting rid of axioms, in whjch every
one will join him, with the salvo if possible, leaves others to
judge of his success. We cannot find, in any pa?i; of his trea-r
tise, a single positive assertion that he has conquered the diffi-
culty ; if therefore we shall show^ as we think we can, that
there is in his theory an assumed proposition equally difficult
with that of Euclid, he may abandon bis system, if found to be
incorrect, without retracting s^ word he has written. This is
admirable, were it only for its rarity.

When the third edition of this work appeared, we were in-
clined to examine the part relating to parallels, but were
frightened at its length. Twenty-seven closely-printed pages,

* We make it a point to know no more of an author than he is pleased to tell
ui in hit title-page ; in another sense, no uncommon practice of reviewers.

Geomfffy mlhout Axioms^, 101

with diagrams of UQQsual conaplexity, were enough eyen tc^
scare a reviewer ; at least one who was disposed to follow tho
somewhat obsolete pustom of reading his author. We were
also deterred by observing that a cpntemporary^ who wrote a
laudatory review, appeared tp have foundered ir^ the opean of
truth on which we were casting a dubious eye : for^ instead of
giving any precise information upon this very ' pinph and nip/
(to use our author's words) of the book, he contented himself with
observing that, though long, it was not on that accpunt to be
rejected, if correct ; and helped himself, as well as be could^
with some witty invectives against • royalists* in geopietry. So
we resolved to let the ocean alone, and to reipain contented
with our pebbles for the presetit. When, however, the fourth
edition appeared, in which it was announced that the part re-
lating to parallels had been reduced one-half, wp left our moqr-
ings, which were in a snug position behind the breakwater of
Euclid's eleventh axiom, and set sail, resolved to hold on our
course so long as it appeared safe. Jn the second propositioi^
of the series we saw breakers ahead, warning us of the hidden
rocks of tacit assumption, whereupon we put about imme-
diately, and here we are, once more on the right side of the
breakwater, resolved not to go to sea again in a hurry.

The principles on which the author appears to found his
aversion to axioms shall be stated in his own \vords.

* In arguments on the general affairs of life, the place where every
man is most to be suspected is in what he starts from as ** what
nobody can deny." It was, therefore, of evil example, that science
of any kind should be supposed to be founded on axioms ; and it is
no answer to say, th^t in a particular case they were true.* — Preface^
page 8.

Again, speaking of an assumed theorem, the author observes
(page 147) as follows, where we have kept the words as nearly
as the absence of the context will permit.

^ For the sake of removing the argument from vulgar experience,
suppose some very great dimension, as for instance equal to the
radius of the earth's orbit. If an astronomer should arise, and
declare he had found astronomical evidence that this was true,'
meaning something contrary to the consequences of axioms derived
from immediate perceptircs, *how would the supporters of the
analytical proof,' or any other founded on axioms, the spirit of the
passage allows us to add, ' proceed to put him down?'

Again, page 5 :

* A cooper knows that, ip every instance where he has tried it,
the distance that went exactly round the rim of his cask at six
times, was the distance to be taken in his compasses in order to
describe the head that would fit. But he does not know the reasons

108 Geometry without Axionar.

why this will necessarily be the case, not only in the instances which
he hoi tried, but in all which he has not tried also.'

In the first of these extracts, we think our author not so
correct in his views as usual. Does he not observe that a poli-
tician> or a moralist^ or a theologian^ generally has his ' which
nobody can deny/ immediately falsified by his opponent? Did
he ever hear * which nobody does deny* in the same circum-
stances ? If so, has it not always been ' nobody of any sense,'
* nobody who knows the subject/ or some such little hit at the
adversary ? That ' nobody can deny it* is, as times go, the very
essence of a controvertible position : that ' nobody does deny
it,' that of an axiom of Euclid.

We agree to the second and third extract, and by them, and
his own general principles of reasoning, which are always sound,
we proceed to try our author's theory of parallels. No proposi-
tion is either to be admitted or denied (page 6) without proof:
no evidence is to drawn from our little six-foot perceptions of
material objects : it may be that the angles of a triangle are
equal to one right-angle and a half, instead of two ; there may
be an infinite number of parallels to a given line all drawn
through one point ; nay, if he pleases, the greatest possible
equilateral triangle may possibly be that which has the dis-
tance between our sun and Aldebaran for its base : and it may
possibly be that, though other triangles can be described larger,
some freak of nature hinders the equilateral triangle from ex-
tending its dimensions. On none of these points will we insist
or deny without proof; or any others which can be named : it
is but fair, therefore, that among the propositions which are
neither asserted nor denied, we should be allowed to place the
following.

Let BA and AC be equal lines, making an angle BAC less
than two right angles, and at the points C and B make the an-
gles ABD ACE respectively equal to BAC, and cut off BD and
CE respectively equal to AB or AC : then the points D and E
will always coincide, whatever may be the angle BAC. This
proposition, according to our author's principles, must not be
either asserted or denied without proof. We contend that the

Geometry without Axioms. 109

* pinch and nip' of the paralogism into which he has fallen,
lies in supposing, without proof, that there are or may be sup-
posed to be, cases in which the above is 110/ true. It is certain
that our proposition contradicts the senses wofuUy ; but we have
agreed to throw them aside, or at least to say we know not what
may take place in rectilinear figures as big as the universe.
We now proceed to verify our assertion from the author^s work :
if we have bantered him a little, he will not object, for next to
clear general views of logic and perspicuity of language, the
art of playing off his predecessors is his own particular /or /e.

Our author's first proposition (xxviii. A), in which he departs
from Euclid, is the following, the letters being altered to suit
our figure : If (see the preceding figure) from the ends of a
line AB, equal lines BE) and AC are drawn, making equal
angles ABD, BAG, with AB, and each less than two right
angles ; then, he says, if the equal lines BD and AC do not
meet J a four-sided figure (which he calls a tessera) has been
described, of which the angles at D and C are also less than
two right angles. This, we admit, he proves. The next pro-
position requires the construction of the following figure. Let
AB and AC be equal lines, making an angle CAB less than
two right angles ; at the points B and C, make the angles

ABD, ACE, respectively equal to CAB, and BD and CE
equal to AC or AB ; at D and* E repeat the process, and so
on. Our author then reasons as follows : take the equal angles
ACB, ABC, from the equal angles ACE, ABD, and there
remain the angles ECB, CBD, which are therefore equal. ' Also
the sides BD, CE are equal to one another, wherefore DBCE
is a tessera,^ In proof of the assertion in italics, the author
cites the preceding proposition, in which we find the limitation,
provided the equal sides do not meet. Here then is our
point : if D and E are supposed not to coincide, the proposition
about which we insisted on remaining neuter, is contradicted^
in one case at least, that is, is declared not to be always true.
To make out his enunciation, the author needs the following
axiom : — If the sides EC, CA, AB, and BD are equal, and
ECA, CAB, and ABD are equal angles, each less than
two right angles, then E and D do not always coincide for
every value of the angle BAC. Now, of this, where is the
proof 7 The axiom of Euclid, put in its simplest form, is as

110 Geometry without Axioms.

follows : — ^Through a given point only one parallel can be drawn
to a given straight line. Our author's objection to Euclid is : —
Of this^ where is the proof? The question is now reduced in
our minds to the following : — Is the axiom of our author more
evident than that of Euclid ? (we here appeal to our senses) :
next, is it so much more evident that it is worth while to ap-^
pend to Euclid six propositions and seventeen pages of matter t
We answer no to the first, and of course to the second. If a
proof could be supplied of that which at present is an axiomi
the rest might stand : we say might, for we have not thought
it necessary to examine further ; but up to the present time^
we consider that no advantage has been gained over Euclid.

Our author has not said a word on the case in which the
auffle CAB is so taken that BD falls below BC. The angle
BAG is^ by hypothesis, any angle less than the sum of two
Hght angles. Let the reader take an angle less than sixty
degrees, and try to construct the figure, and follow the demon-
stration ; let him then do the same with Prop, xxviii. D> and
he will see that neither of them are general. . In order to be
certain that ABD is greater than ABC, the hypothesis, that
BAG is less than two right angles, must be increased bv adding
that BAC is greater than one right angle. The angle ABC, for
anything yet shown to the contrary, may with CAB make up
anything short of two right angles, that is, for BD to fall in
the way drawn in the figure, BAC or ABD must be greater
than ABC, that is, must be greater than a right angle ; for,
anything previously proved notwithstanding, if BAC be less
than one right angle, ABC may be greater.

Our author endeavours to prove several of the other axioms.
If his proofs were called illustrations or exemplifications, we
should not object to them ; but as it is, we are at a loss to see
in what the proof consists. ApoUonius of Perga, according
to Produs, had preceded him in this attempt : we give the
demonstration by ApoUonius of the axiom, that things which
are equal to the same are equal to one another. He
argues, that if A is eqiial to B, it occupies (may be made to
occupy) the same place as B. And if B is equal to C, it oc-
cupies the same place as C, whence A and C occupy the same
place, or are equal: on which Proclus remarks, that the pro-
position, * things which occupy the same place are equal,' and
its converse, are not more evident than the thing which is to be
proved. Our author proceeds as follows (page 4) : ' The esta^
blishment of some universal proposition is called a demonstra-
iionJ A consequence is, ' a conclusion, the truth of which is
shown to be so connected with the truth of some preceding
position or statement, that the preceding cannbt be ttue^ with-

Qmmtsiry without Avnonis. Ill

out thel other being true also.' Then (page 7)^ having drawn
from definition the conclusion that A and C, if both equal to
■B^ can be tiiade to coincide in boundary with B> our author
remarks, without reference to any proof, * But because A and
B would each Coincide with C; if the boundaries of both could
be elpplied to those of C at once, A and B would coincide with
one another/ whence he infers the equality of A and B. Is
not the clause just quoted precisely the axiom of Euchd ? The
latter says, ' things which are equal to the same are equal to
one another/ and looking at the definition of the term equality^
(which We admit to be improperly placed among the axioms,)
we find * things which fit on one another (ra l(f%pp.61^oyra Its*
oKKinKa) are equal/ To ' fit on one another' can mean nothing
but td coincide in boundary. Substituting, therefore, for the
word equal its definition, the axiom of Euchd takes the follow-
ing form, opposite to which we write the assumption of our
author.

Euclid. Author of ' Geometry without

Axioms,*

Re<iaired to be granted as an axiom* Furnished as demonstration, without

reference to any preceding part, and
therefore assumedj on its own evi-
dence, or axiomatic.

Hypolhem. — Two things co- Hypothesis, — * A and B would
incide in boundary with the sartie each coincide with C*
thing.

Assumed consequence. — They Assumed consequence, — * If
coincide in boundary with one the boundaries of both could be
another. applied to those of C at once*

tliey would coincide with one
another.'

We are at a loss to see what advantage is gained by our
author in the way of proof.

An angle, says our author {Preface^ page x.), or the thing
talked about under that name, is, whether geometers know it
or not, a plane surface. His is the first work, which we
know, in which this idea is fairly brought before the beginner.
We suspect he is quite right ; and that in the extension of
the term equal to unlimited figures which coincide in all their
parts, as well as to limited figures, will be found the ultimate
resting point of the theory of parallels. Our author's definition
of an angle is * the plane surface (of unlimited extent in some
directions, but Hmited in others) passed over by the radius
vector in travelling flrom one of two divergent straight lines to
the other/ Had oUr author stuck close to his definition, the

]^]^2 Geometry wUhciut Axioms.

demonstration* of Euclid's axiom, given by M. Bertrand,
ought to have been sufficient; but in arguing against that
demonstration (page 147), he observes, that ' ail references to
the equality of magnitude of infinite areas are intrinsically
paralogisms.' This astonished us not a little when compared
with his own definition of an ang:le, for we could not suspect
our author of playing upon the difference between the words
' unlimited * and ' infinite.' On further inspection, however,
we found that the definition was a dead letter, and that our
author's treatment of the angle was precisely that of Euclid.
We wonder, therefore, that the definition should have been
inserted; for it is in the definition only, and the diflSculty
which a beginner must find in settling his ideas of greater, less,
and equal, on that definition, that the whole objection to M.
Bertrand's demonstration turns.

We have hitherto omitted all mention of a curious and
novel part of the work, which, though liable to objection, has
the stamp of talent upon it in no ordinary degree. The au-
thor calls it an intercalary book, to be omitted until the student
is, in some degree, familiar with geometry. We also should
recommend the beginner to leap it, if he would ever hope to
make any procuress. It is intended to supersede the definitions
and axioms relating to the straight line and plane, by gene-
rating the first (to which we will confine ourselves) from the
point of contact of two spherical surfaces, one of which decreases
and the other increases, the centres remaining fixed. This is,
we certainly admit, to begin gemino ah ovo. Our author's
description of it is as follows ; we prefix some new definitions
which he requires : —

(Page 1.) — * Any thing that can be made the object of touch is

called a body. ^ ,^ , .

« A body whose particles are immoveable among themselves, at

least by any force there is question of employing, is called a hard

body.

{Preface, page vi.) — ' A solid may be described — all the points in

whose surface shall be equidistant from a given point within ; such
a solid is called a sphere, A sphere may be turned in any manner
whatsoever about its centre, without change of place. Conse-
quences deducible from this are, that if two spheres touch one ano-
ther externally, they touch only in a point ; and if they are turned
as one body about the two centres, which remain at rest, the point
of contact remains unmoved. Hence, if about two assigned points
be described a succession of spheres, touching one another, any
number of intermediate points may be determined that shall be de-
sired, which, on the whole being turned about the two centres,
shallbe without change of place ; and if this be extended to imagiu-
* See the Society's Treatise on the Study of Mathetnadet, page 78.

Geometry without Axioms. 113

ingf one sphere to increase continuously in magnitude, and the other
to decrease, the line described by theirpoint of contact will be with-
out change of place throughout:* such a line is called a straight line.'

The above is sufficient to give a notion of the scope of the
book ; the idea of hardness involved is not meant to include
impenetrability — two such hard surfaces may intersect. Four
points are said to be equidistant, two and two, without refer-
ence to the length contained between them, when the first two
can, by change of place only, be made to coincide with the
second. We think we see in this same hardness and its conse-
quences something very like an axiomatic distinction between
absolute and relative position; want of room obliges us not to
dwell on this part, and to avoid the imputation of just hinting
a fault, we avow that we really do not know whether we could
establish that point or not. We proceed to shew what we
conceive to be a concealed axiom.

The ' pinch and nip' (we thank the author for teaching us
those words) of the intercalary book lies in the demonstration
of Proposition V. (page 16) ; ' if two spheres touch one ano-
ther externally, they touch only in a point.' It has previously
been fairly deduced from the assumed definitions, that a sphere
does not suffer change of place by any motion round its centre ;
that is, any point of absolute space, which either is or is not
occupied by a point of the sphere in one of its positions, is in
the same predicament for every other position. The author
then gives his demonstration of the several cases ; namely, that
the two spheres neither meet in a surface, a closed line, an open
line, nor a plurality of insulated points. Hence he infers they
can meet only in one point; but the demonstration of each
of the cases requires that the intersection supposed in the
reductio ad absurdiim should, by some motion of the sphere,
siiffer change of place, or be capable of being moved with one
of the spheres, so that some absolute points of either sphere,
which were parcel of their intersection in one position, are not so
in another. But what if the following proposition should
happen to be true ? ' Not only does the whole sphere not
suffer change of place by any motion round its centre, but upon
the sphere a line or zone can be drawn, which also shall not
suffer change of place.' We are sure that the author does not
get through his demonstration without a tacit denial of the
preceding, which it is not very obvious how to refute, even to
a moderately well informed mathematician. Can any one
say when he first comes to consider the subject, that something
might not be drawn on the sphere which should have the pre-
ceding property ? But the question is not even this ; for, sup-
posing that we are justified^ on the evidence of our senses^ in

OoT., 1833^4M., 1834. I

114 Oeometry tvithout AMotM*

rejecting the possibility of the preceding hypothesis^ the ques-
tion arises^ do we, in such rejection^ say that which is more
evident to the senses than that ^ two straight lines cannot in^
close a space V For the very object of the intercalary book
is to supply geometrical evidence of the last-mentioned axiom.

But we have another objection to the preceding proposition.
The hypothesis that the spheres ' touch externally^ is not even
alluded to in the demonstration. The author usually cites his
hypothesis by a marginal reference ; but certainly not in the
margin^ nor^ so far as we can see> in the text^ does die limitation
implied in the hypothesis affect the argument. Unless^ there-
fore, we are wrong on this point, the proposition proves not
only that contact, but all species pf intersection, is limited to a
single point. Even the author himself appears to have been
unconsciously led by the obvious tenor of his argument, for the
word ' touch ' gives place to ' coincide ' throughout the propo-
sition, except only in the preliminary and concluding enuncia-
tions. The author's words are, ' if this,' namely, that they
touch in more than a single point, ' be disputed^ let it be as«
sumed that they coincide, &c.' But we naturally look for,
' let them touch in more points than one/ and for some dis*
tinction between * touching ' and ' coinciding ; ' coincidence
is afterwards shown to be possible, though the result of every
case of this proposition is, that the coincidence assumed for
argument's sake is announced to be impossible.

The author conjectures that Napoleon had the idea in his
mind, ' that in the properties of the circle, or still more proba-
bly of the sphere, might be discovered the elements of geome-
trical organization.' We think it more likely that the idea in
the mind of that ^ eminent practical geometer' was, that in the
possession of Europe, or still more probably of the sjoA^re,
might be discovered the elements of satisfied ambition, at least
for animals with lungs and without wings. But we think the
author has got the wrong end of a story about Mascheroni's
Geometric du Compas, not much known, which, as every
thing relating to Napoleon has its interest, we will, therefore,
cite with abridgment from the Preface to M. Carette's trans-
lation of that work: —

• Mascheroni published his Gkometrie du Compos at Pavia in
1797, towards the end of Napoleon's stay in Italy. The latter had
several conversations with the author about his work, and when he
returned to France was invited by Fran9ais de Neufchateau to meet
a large party of members of the Institute. Laplace and Lagrange
were there, and Bonaparte» in conversation with them, but particu"
lar)y wif,h the former, made known the work of Mascheroni, for
the lirst fime in F^anc^, and 9hpwed the solution of some of the

Oeometry without Axioms. \15(

problepos. Afler having heard him with attention, Lap)ace, who
had been his professor of mathematics at Brienne, said, ** General,,
we expected a good deal of you, but not lessons in mathematics." '

This must have been the ^ circular geometry' with which
Bonaparte amused his staff on the way from Egypt.

Our limits wiU not permit oyr considering mis work as au
edition of Euclid ; we can only say that the part which relates
to nomenclature^ the details of the propositions^ and the scholia
appended to many of them, are all excellent. If our author
could tolerate au expressed axiom, he would be among the
very best editors of Euclid ; as it is, we think the work might
be looked over with profit, as it certainly would be with in-
terest, by every one who h^s studied geometry; as putting the
feader in possession of the actual state of the controversy about
the theory of parallels. But where the author departs from
the old model, that is, does not like the avowed admission of
the clearest physical truths on the evidence of the senses, he
seems to us to substitute the tacit rejection of untruths frpm
the same authority ; if, then, he will not follow EucUd because
the latter heads the school of axiomatic assumption, he him-
self must be looked upon, up to his fourth edition at least, as
belonging to that of axiomatic denial.

BU^TMANN'S GREEK GRAMMAR.

Dr. Philip Buttmann*s Intermediate or Larger Oreek Qram*
mar, translated from the German. By D. Boileau, Esq.,
&c. Edited, with a few Notes, by E. H. Barker, Esq.
London : Black and Young. 1833.
We are glad to see anything that Buttmann has done presented
to the English reader in a shape fit to be read. In a former
Number (Journal, No. 1) we had occasion to remark briefly
on some very singular errors in the American translation and
the English reprint of Buttmann's School Grammar. Though
the present translation does not appear entirely unexception-
able, we have not met with any mistakes calculated to give it
the same distinction as the other translation just alluded to.
Buttmann wrote three grammars : the School Grammar, the
Larger Greek Grammar, and the Complete Greek Grammar
{Ausfuhrliche Qriechische Sprachlehre).* The book which is
the subject of the present short notice is the Intermediate or
Larger Grammar, now translated for the first time, as we are
informed by the editor and the translator, from the thirteenth
German edition.

* We saw Professor Robinson's (of Andover, U. S.) translation of Buttmann
tOQ law to notice it in thii Number.

I 2

116 Buttmann's Oreek Grammar.

The Complete Greek Grammar only contains the ety-
mology of the Greek language. Buttmann did not live to
finish it by the addition of the syntax. It is, as far as it goes^
an admirable work for the more advanced Greek scholar, and
shoidd take precedence of all yet existing. A translation has
been announced of this work also; but it is not a mere trans-
lation that is wanted in the present state of our knowledge;
there are additions wanted, and errors to be corrected, which
defects, had the learned author lived, he would have been the
first to remedy.

The present work is dedicated by the editor to Dr. Keate,
head-master of Eton school. Whether it is from the fulness of
respect intimated in the dedication, or from a notion that the
book is much wanted there, we cannot decide. We can only
hope that the object of the dedication will be fully answered by
the book being recommended by the masters to their more
advanced pupils.

We have observed some errors in the translation of the
examples in the syntax, and others have been pointed out to us
by a friend. Several of them appear to arise from a slight mis-
conception of English terms, and might readily have been cor-
rected by the editor.

P. 364. — ' OiXoTiptoraTOf 5v, okjts vavrx vvotx^tyxi vov IvoLi-
veTjOai tnxa, he was uncommonly desirous of distinction,
so as to put up with anything for the sake of being praised.'
The expression put up with is not very appropriate. Would
Cyrus have put up with a blow or a kick ?

P. 367. — ^ 0^ yip cJCWe/xwovT/xi cwl rS> SoDXoi, aXX' e^i rco
otMioi rois \£i7roiJLivois en/ai, (speaking of colonists,) they are
exported not to be slaves, but to be equal to those who are
left behind.' This translation is altogether bad, and the use
of the word exported quite out of place.

P. 374. — ' Demost. Meid. 20. 'Ex/)^v avrovy ri ovra. ava-
XlffKovra, afffTTsp eyci, ovrcj /jls d^atpeiaBai rriV v/xiov, by expending
his own (fortune) like me, he thus (i.e. by this expenditure!)
must snatch the victory from me.' This translation conveys a
wrong impression, or rather no distinct impression at all. The
proper meaning of expyiv in this passage is, no doubt, perfectly
familiar to the editor, but the translation, as it now stands, will
puzzle learners. The whole passage should have been quoted,
which includes a previous infinitive (jJ^offrSvai), without which
no complete translation can be made.

P. 404. We do not assent to Buttmann's remark that in
the formulifi ovx on, ou^ teo/s-, the verb Xiyco, or some such
verb must be supplied. The misconception of this usage of
on and ovwf in such cases, has given rise to the theory of the

Buttmann's Greek Ch'ammar. 117

supplemental \lyat. In the following instance from Dion
Cassius, given by Buttmann: — iavst}^6fMsvos^ o^x o'^' Trapi ruv
liicoruv, dXKci xal vapa. to/v ttoXscov, — the word Bti relers to
Savei^6/x6vof, and could equally well refer to a whole clause :
* borrowing, not borrowing (in the place of the second borrowing
stands 3ti) from individuals, but also from cities,' The em-
phatic xal in the second member shows that the ^borrowing
from individuals* is not here excluded from the affirmation, but
that something is superadded to it. The version given by the
translator is — ^ not only bj/ private persons, but also by cities ; '
such a mistake as this should not have been made by the
translator, or overlooked by the editor.

P. 404. — ^ Theophrastus. Ovx 2^* oiyi(pv av, dWa, xa) emv-
|6<TTg/?ar xarJ xaXXiot/s- ewotTXTg, it would not only have blown,
but also,* &c. We do not see where the wind comes from :
there is no blowing in the Greek. ^Kvotv^earipa,^, qu. bvolu'
%^(jripxs. Blown, qu. grown, or what ?

P. 406. — ' Thucyd. iii. 49. — ri /xev 'jrporipa, vavs f^&flKxe
Tojoyrov, o(Tov Yliyjnra, dvsyvcuxivai ro nJ/io^ KX/xa, the first vessel
arrived only a very little earlier, as Paches had already pro-
claimed the decree of the people.' This is absolutely unintel-
ligible, but bears the distinct impression of the confused idea
which was the father of it. The exact measure (o<7ov . . .
N^oj^KT/xay of the arrival of the first before that of the second
vessel cannot be deduced from the English version : the ori-
ginal is as distinct a thought as words can convey.

P. 418. Buttmann illustrates the usage of (plpojv commonly,
but very incorrectly, called redundant, by this passage — 'gif
rovTO (pipctfv TrepiiffTfiffs ri vpciyf^aru, he has (irresistibly)
brought affairs to that point.' We do not think irresistibly a
good translation of (pipcuVj much less do we assent to the pro-
priety of the Latin quotation of the editor as illustrating this,
usage of (pipm : —

* So Virg. Mn. 8, 609,

At Venus aethereos inter dea Candida nimbos,

Dona FERENS ADERAT.'

p. 341. — ' ou gravTof efvai, not to be every man's business
(i.e., not to be so easily done).'' The explanation mends the
matter a little, but the translation is positively wrong. The
original means ' that it is not in every man's power.'

P. 327. — ' oifii ra, dvacyxaia hvdvrxi vopli^eiv, they cannot
even procure the needful (the necessary things).' We do not
know where this passage is taken from, no reference being
given ; but it is pretty certain that the translator does not see
J^p di^tiijgtiou ^^etiyeeji Tfofi^m wd ^o^/^6a9«^ The empbat^p

118 Buttmann*8 Greek Grammar.

word even is wrong placed^ as usual in our ordinary trans-
lations of similar passages.

P. 336.—' Plato. Gorg. init, — 'AXX' S, to Xeyo/xevov, yLOLroitiv
lopirhs ^xopi^ev ; do we come, as the saying is, after the feast ? '
This translation of ^ko/xev seems ambiguous: possibly the
right meaning — ' have we arrived, or are we come, too late ? '
may be intended, but it is ill expressed.

P. 340. Buttmann is assigning the usages of the genitive.
' 4. To the question when ? but only of an indefinite time of
some duration — groXXa/v rif^spm ot» i^eiJLeKiTnKoc, I have not prac-
tised for several days ; IxeTje ovk a(piKveTrt3ci Irwv y^vpiuv* But
this usage of the genitive is not limited to an indefinite time.
Xen. Anab. I. 7, 18. HaoiX^vs oC (ji,a%&7rait Hkq^ ifJLspwv,
Other examples may be found.

P. 359,—* 'Eav tjV viva ruv viroipy(pvrcJv voptA^v /x^ naKus ?X6iv
^^Tflti, ypafiff^at, if any one should think any of the existing
laws improper, he may propose a new law.' Wot having the
original German before us, we do not know whether the mis-
translation of ypa^iadcj is due to the author or translator. It
does not mean—' he may propose a new law ' — but, ' let him
proceed (i.e., in the usual form) against the old law/ for its
repeal.

Such mistakes as we have pointed out, from a cursory (exa-
mination of the translation, will show that it is not as accurate
as it should be in the version of the syntactical examples. This
is not a small defect, as the right translation of such examples
is a great help to all students, and more especially to those
who are obliged to trust mainly to their own exertions in learn-
ing the Greek language. We hope the translator, or rather
the editor (for this is his business), may soon have the opportu-
nity of correcting these, and whatever other mistakes there may
be, in a second edition.

PRINCIPLES OF GEOMETRY.

Principles of Geometry familiarly illustrated^ and applied
to a variety qf useful purposes. By the Rev. W. Ritchie,
LL;D. F.KS., &c. London: John Taylor, 1833.

We have elsewhere so fully exposed our views on the method
in which geometry should be taught, that, whether we are
right or wrong, our readers will better judge of the actual con-
tents of a book, by our comparison of it with the articles to
which we allude, than by anything else that could be contained
in the space which w6 ^re able to devote to the subject. Our

Principles of Geometry. 119

opinion retnstins unaltered; namely^ that the truths of geometry
should be first taught^ as matters of ocular demonstration; that
the first principles of reasoning should then be attended to ; and
lastly, the connexion of the facts in the first part by the me-
thods taught in the second. Our creeds however, has no
anathemas for any difference of opinion except one : we cannot
tolerate the admission of any bad reasoning, for the sake of
avoiding the occasional prolixity of that whicn is good ; or the
dressing up of anything in the shape of demonstration, which
is not at least as strict as Euclid. With this proviso we can
imagine many very useful modifications of our plan.

The work before us is intended principally for the use of
teachers, or of pupils under viva voce instruction. We infer
this from the occasional brevity of the illustrations, and the
use of terms and modes of speech, which would be difficultj
and of what we will venture to call tuitional remarks which
would be useless, to the unassisted learner. We shall, there-
fore, judge the work by its actual contents, and not by the
manner in which they are expressed.

At first sight this book made an impression upon us of the
most favourable character, which, though seriously modified by
further examination, is by no means destroyed, and in one of
its grand features, at least, remains totally unaltered. . So far
as it is an exposition of geometrical facts, accompanied by prac-
tical illustrations and useful developments, we approve highly
of all that is done, and consider the present production as an
acquisition to the geometrical teacher, furnishing him with a
well-selected supply of interesting matter, bearing immediately
on the use, and even meaning, of the truths before him. But
in all matters relating to definition and reasoning, our author
has written in a manner which has filled us with astonishment,
and has left us perfectly at a loss to understand whether he
really means what he says, or whether some strange halluci^
nation, either in ourselves or him, has interfered with the
signification of the most common terms. We shall put the
grounds of all we have said before our reader^ and leave him

to decide.

The fundamental propositions, as well of plane as of solid
geometry, the latter however very partially, are placed before
the teacher correctly and perspicuously. To these are added
practical illustrations, such as are contained in the principle of
the theodolite, and the various instruments of surveying, the
vernier, &c. ; and, which we are highly pleased to see, the
method of gebmetrical analysis is brought forward, and insisted
upon. We have not the slightest jioubt that any readei: who

120 Principles of Geometry,

examines the work will agree with us so far> and shall therefore
not lose space in substantiating points upon which we feel we
risk nothing by very positive assertion. We shall^ therefore,
proceed at once to the less agreeable, but more useful part of
our task : more useful, because laxity of reasoning is very often
excessively agreeable, where strictness would be perhaps some-
what dull at first ; and we would rather that books like the
present should sink into obscurity, with all their good points,
than be made an instrument of banishing the soundness of
logic from the establishment of geometrical truths. No rea-
soning at all, and welcome, but — no bad reasoning.

It appears that the author has agreed with us in feeling that
geometrical results ought to be taught at an earlier age than is
usually the case, and might be so, were it not for the diffi-
culties of establishing them strictly. We have' already recom-
mended to dismiss the proofs entirely at first, and teach the
properties of the angles of a triangle by precisely the same
method which is used to prove mechanical truths, namely,,
ocular demonstration. Our author follows another plan.
Where the reasoning which connects one proposition with an-
other is very simple, it is coiTecdy given, and often very hap-
pily ; but where this is not the case, either good use is made
of the terms ' obviously' or • must necessarily be,* or else a
set of words is substituted for proof, by which, if necessary, the
most incongruous propositions might be also proved. In de-
fence of this, the following very curious argument is given :
curious, as we shall see when we come to trace its conse-
quences.

• Another reason why I have avoided a formal demonstration of
the converse of a proposition is, that the proof is most frequently of
that kind which is called indirect^ or a reductio ad ahsvrdum^ that
is, showing it would be absurd to suppose the contrary. Pupils
have a dislike to this kind of demonstration, and for this as well as
other reasons it should be used very sparingly in geometry. Be-
sides, in every case the real converse is necessarily true, the demon-
stration of the proposition establishing the truth of the converse.
Thus, for example, if it be proved that the equality of two of the
angles of a triangle depends essentially on the equality of the op-
posite sides, it follows that the equality of the sides depends essen-
tiaUy on the equality of the angles.* — p. 85.

To take the preceding points separately, we have found that
pupils have no great liking for any sort of demonstration, and
the manner in which they show their dislike, by being always
ready to contract good reasoning into bad, is to us sufficient
proof of the necessity of inducing thei» to mei^d their h^\%

Principles^ of Geometry, 121

We imagine all are a^eed that the reductio ad absurdum
should not be used more often than necessary ; but no method
has yet been found of avoiding it entirely : for we cannot call
our author's plan of assuming converses, a method. What
he says about the real converse, we agree to in one sense ; but
we suspect, from the latter paragraph, that we cannot agree as
to what is the ' real converse/ We can imagine any one saying
that the common logical converse is not the real converse, in
universal affirmative propositions at least ; but that in inter-
changing the subject and predicate the latter ought to he
limited as in the original proposition. For example, that of
'all right angles are equal angles,' (I) the real converse is not
' all equal angles are right angles ;' (2) but some equal angles
are right angles' (3). Let then (3), which is named by logi-
cians a conversion per accidens, be called the real converse,
which we hold to be very rational, and let (2), commonly called
the converse, be entitled the extended converse, since the sub-
ject of (2) is more generally spoken of than the predicate of
(1). This being supposed, we admit with our author that every
proposition proves its real converse ; and will never require
proof from him. But it does not therefore follow, that every
proposition proves its extended converse; and no one could
imagine that our author would assume that it does. What
then shall we say to the following ?

' For when AB D is a straight line, these angles amount to two
right angles, therefore conversely, when they amount to two right
angles, A B D must be a straight line.'

Here is the extended converse assumed as a consequence of
the original proposition. We beg leave to parody the pre-
ceding : for the assertion ' A B D is a straight line,' substitute
' an author makes a mistake,' and for ' these angles amount to
two right angles,' read ' he is still a living man.' Mutatis
mutandis, we have the following : —

* When an author makes a mistake, he is still a living man,
therefore conversely, so long as he is a living man, he must make
mistakes.'

We feel convinced that our author, if he be a living man long
enough, will be able to confute the latter in his second edition ;
but how he is to do it without confuting the former, we are not
able to guess.

The last part of our preceding quotation, beginning, ' Thus,
for example, &c.' we are not able to understand. We do not
see the consequence asserted ; perhaps this arises from our not
J^nowing what is ^leaut bv the emphatic word ' essentialljr,' a^

122 Prindples of Geometry.

there applied. We maybe dull perhaps, but the ' essences' of
metaphysics do not strike our perceptions half so strongly as
those which are sold with directions for use in the druggists*
shops.

In the theory of parallels the same sort of conversion appears,
and we have to add one more to the many methods of esta-
blishing the disputed axiom of Euclid. Is it not strange that
an author, who professedly throws away much of the reasoning
of Euclid, should make compensation by furnishing a proof of
what Euclid never attempted to prove ? Yet so it is ; the pupil
is shown that when two right lines make, with a third, angles
together equal to two right angles, they do not meet in either
direction, and consequently that, when they do not meet in
either direction, they must make angles together equal to two
right angles with any third line— (page 33).

Again, our author says (page 13), that a pupil who cuts out
two triangles as described in Euclid i. 4, and applies them
to one another, ' will clearly see that they \iot only do coincide,
but they must necessarily do so.' What the pupil will see,
without the reasoning of Euclid, more than that they do coin-
cide, we cannot imagine: our only idea of necessary proposi-
tions is applied to those which we can show by reasoning not
to be sometimes true and sometimes false, but always true.

We like popular illustrations very much when they are cor-
rect, but not in the contrary case. Our author illustrates the
proposition, that the area of a circle is equivalent to that of a
triangle, having the circumference for its base, and the radius
for its altitude, in the following manner. He supposes a roll
of ribbon half cut through, in which case the divisions will
fall down on both sides, and the circular side of the roll will
present the appearanee of a triangle, having what was the cir-
cumference for a base, and the radius for an altitude. This is
very ingenious, and might seduce any one into a belief of the
proposition as o{ one proved. But if the roll were in the form
of an elliptic, instead of a circular, cylinder, the same process
would prove that an ellipse is equal to a triangle, having the
circumference for a base, and either axis for its altitude.
Should this unluckily turn out to be true, alas for Legendre
and Jacobi ! that they should so long have worn on their breasts
enough to prove more than they ever could get out of their
heads.

We might notice some little inaccuracies which require the
author's attention in a second edition. The definition of a
straight line, even as corrected in the erratum, is hardly ne-
cessary when the property implied in the definition is not to

Prifitiple^ of Oeometfy. 123

be subsequently made use of. For beginners iii geoiiietry, a
straight line is a straight line a,ll the world over. Again^ it is
not true (page 75) that ' a plane surface is a figure bounded
by lines^'* even when ' line' means ^ straight line.' Neither is
it correct to say (page 136), that an interminate decimal frac-
tion is incommensurable with the unit, at least there is an infi-
nitude of ratios, which are incommensurable (if this be the
meaning of the term), which are not so according to any other
author. In the exercises also, which are in general very good,
there are a few which might be omitted, either as little ciirio-
sities, in which the wonder only arises from the vagueness with
which they are put, or as being fairly beyond, not only all pu-
pils, but many teachers. Such, for example, as the following : —

* Prove that no more trees can grow at the same distance from
each other on a mountain, than on the horizontal base on which it
iBtands.'

*' Why did the bee select the regular hexagon for constructing its
cell, rather than the equilateral triangle or square ?

The first of these, if by ' distance^ be meant distance mea-
sured on the hill, as one might naturally suppose, is not true ;
and if horizontal distance be meant, there is hardly any exer-
cise, and the diagram, which accompanies the question, will
surely mislead the pupil. As to the second, we think we re-
member to have seen it proved very satisfactorily, that the
hexagonal form of the cell is a consequence of the bee's number
of legs, and not at all of any selection, or attention t6 the
theory of maxima and minima. But even according to the
common notion, it is a very hard question.

In conclusion, we recommend this book to teachers for the
facts and the illustrations ; but we put it to their discretion
whether they will teach their pupils to reason by it, after the
instances which we have selected. We all have heard of a
student who read Euclid in an afternoon, that is, * read the
large print, and looked at the pictures of scratches and scrawls,
but left out all the tiresome A's and B's and C's.' This latter
part our author has partially done ; if any intelligent teacher
will complete the work, he will, in very little time, be able to
give his pupils a great deal of the useful and the entertaining
combined, and will, we doubt not, inspire considerable interest
in the study.

While this article was going through the press, we have
ascertained that the author has, since the publication of his
work, made some additions to the preface. From a passage

124 Principles of Geometry.

which we now cite^ we should imagine that some friend had
suggested what might possibly be said upou his method of
reasoning.

• We could easily point out the very pages where a purely geo-
metrical critic, who scarcely knows anything of the ** delightful task,"
will pick and cull, and find fault because these pages are not whttt
they never were intended to be ; but we shall refrain from doing so,
lest we should fall into the error of writing a long preface to tismall
volume.'

This amuses us exceedingly; for the * delightful task,' though
from the context it might appear to be ^ picking and culling,
and finding fault/ which has been suspected by some to be
delightful to reviewers, is no such thing. We remember well
what it is ; for in our first spelling-book, at a part yclept the
frontispiece, was an awful picture of an old lady and a birch
rod, and a dozen children, who looked dismally cognizant ot
the probability of nearer acquaintance with the latter, and un-
derneath was written : —

' Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought
To teach the young idea how to shoot.'

On looking at the • tender thoughts' which this work incul-
cates, and seeing that it is now the avowed object to teach that,
every bird being an animal, * therefore conversely,^ every animal
is a bird, which is our author's method of reasoning, we are
of opinion that the young idea is made to shoot dreadfully wide
of the mark.

We cannot but suppose that the author, when he wrote the
preceding passage, was aware of the points on which any cri-
ticism must turn, and knew that, in his methods of reasoning,
he differed from the universal sense of mankind. If so, well
might he say that he knew the very pages (aye, and lines and
words), on which a ^ purely geometrical critic' would throw his
censure; but we will go even further, and say that it is not
necessary to be any great geometer to find him out. That the
work was not intended to be correct is no answer, but a great
aggravation ; and changes our verdict from logical manslaughter
into wilful murder.

( 125 )

NEW EDITION OF HERODOTUS.

*lipoB6rou rov * AXiKccpy/iffff^os *I(7ropicuv Xoyoi &', Iwiy^a^o^svo*
Movffai' auv 'TrpoXsyofjiivois^ kolI fffif^eLojastnv, lnS/^ovro^ xal Siop'

The History of Herodotus of Halicamassus^ in nine books^
with Prolegomena, Azotes, afid Emendations. By Alex-
ander Negris. 2 vols. 12mo. Edinburgh, Thomas Clarke.
1833.

This new edition of the Father of History is by a Greek. The
Prolegomena, which are written in Romaic or modern Greek,
open with a few remarks on the advantages of studying his-
tory, which contain nothing either new in thought or callhig
for particular examination. The life of Herodotus, which is
also given in the Prolegomena, seems to require some animad-
version, as, in our opinion, it is a very imperfect and incorrect
sketch, and tends to perpetuate certain notions which will not
stand the test of sound criticism. Being written in a language
not generally re^d with fluency, even by professed Greek
scholars, it is not likely to do any great harm in England ; but
as the author may be presumed to be chiefly writing for his
countrymen, who are now, we hope, entering on a new career of
intellectual existence, it is well that he should lead them into
the path of sound historical criticism.

The writer has apparently not attempted to deduce the life
of Herodotus from his own writings, which are almost the only

fenuine source from which correct information can be drawn,
n chap. 8 (of the Prolegomena) and chap. 9, the author has
given the order of the travels of Herodotus. He first makes
him travel through Hellas (by which, we presume, Greece, iu
the common acceptation of the term, is meant), Epirus, Mace-
donia, Thrace; from Thrace he crossed the Ister, and visited
the Scythian tribes. His next travels were (chap. 9) to
Egypt by sea, from Egypt to Asia, ' from Asia (these are the
words of the author) to Colchis, Scythia, Thrace, Macedonia,
and through Epirus into Hellas.' For all this order of events
there is not the least evidence, either in the work of Herodotus
or elsewhere. We might, with a little pains, fix to a certain
degree the order of time in which some places were visited, for
example, he had seen Athens (i. 98.) before he had seen Ecba-
tana; but the whole series of his travels cannot be determined.
The extent of his travels also is very imperfectly indicated
by the vague terms of Egypt, Asia, &c. He went in Egypt
as far south as Elephantine, and it is pretty certain (ii. 181.)

126 Negris*8 Herodotus.

that he travelled into Libya as far west as Cyrene. He cer-
tainly visited Ecbatana^ Hamadan, (i. 98.) and probably also
Susa, SuSy (v. 52-54. vi. 119.) All this extensive travelling was
completed^ according to the author> before the expulsion of
Lygdamis^ the tyrant of Halicarnassus> and« consequently^
before Herodotus had attained his twenty-eighth year^ as we
shall presently see.

Finding Halicarnassus distracted by contending factions
after the expulsion of Lygdamis^ Herodotus left his native
country (chap. 12), and returned to Hellas (Greece) during
the time of the celebration of the eighty-first Olympiad. Here,
wishing to immortalize himself, according to the story, he read
' the beginning of his history, or, perhaps, the parts of it which
wore calculated to flatter the pride ' of the assembled Greeks,
The young Thucydides, then fifteen years of age (according to
the author), was present with his father, Olorus, and burst into
tears on hearing Herodotus recite his history at Olympia. The
historian of Halicarnassus observed it, and congratulated the
father on the promising disposition of his son. Herodotus
employed (chap. 13) the next twelve years in completing his
history and making himself better acquainted with the localities
of Greece. ' At so ffreat an interval (chap. 14) after the read-
ing of part of his history at Olympia, about the close of the
eighty-fourth Olympiad, he read another portion at Athens,
during the Panathenaic festival. The Athenians, far from
limiting themselves to bare praise, gave him ten talents in con-
formity with a decree, which was proposed by Any t us and
ratified by the public assembly.'

The story of Herodotus reading his works at the Olympic
games is grounded on a small piece by Lucian (Ed. Reiz. 4to.
p. 831), entitled Herodotus, or Aetion, which is much too long
to quote here. It is translated by Dahlmann (p. 12, &c., of his
Herodot. Aus seinem Buche sein Lehen, Altona, 1823), and
examined in a way that leaves the story entirely without any
credible foundation. The Aetion appears to be nothing more
than an introductory address delivered by Lucian (see section
8) to an audience in Macedonia, and intended to prepossess his
hearers in favour of his intended course of readings. That his
account of Herodotus was merely fabricated to suit his own
purpose, and produce the desired effect, can scarcely be
doubted, if the Aetion is read with attention, and if we also
take into the account Lucian's character and the general tenor of
his writings. Dahlmann (pp. 28, 29) refers to several passages
which ought to convince us that Lucian was not very particu-
lar either as to historical facts or the order of time ; in several

Negrw's Herodotus. 127

instances he has either betrayed great ignorance, or what is,
perhaps, quite as likely, he regarded the events of history as
things to be moulded to suit his own purpose. The writer who
pould speak of the Saturnalia and Panathenc&a (De Mercede
Conductis, i. p. 696) as Roman festivals, must either have been
very ignorant or very indifferent as to many matters which
one who wrote as an historian would consider of some im-
portance.

Mr. Negris has not represented Lucian's account fairly, for
we must again remark, that it is on this idle story that the
whole Olympic recitation rests, though Mr. Negris has not
cited his authorities. Lucian says (p. 833) that Herodotus
sung or chanted his histories before the full assembly, and
^ charmed his audience so much that his books were named
Muses, being, like the Muses, nine in number.' It seems to
us that we must either take the whole of Lucian's tale, or
r^'ect the whole of it. We are not at liberty to change the
story of Herodotus reading nine books, as the author has done,
into a new story of bis reading the beginning of his history, —
a part, moreover, of all others, least likely to interest his
hearers; nor can we, as th^ author has done, interpret nine
books to be ^ those parts most likely to flatter his audience : '
this supposes that the work was finished, otherwise such selec-
tions as are here alluded to could not have been made; and if
the work was finished, or nearly finished, we do not see the
necessity of twelve years' additional labour to qualify him to
read another part (Jv aXXo fjiipos) to the Athenians. Besides^
among the assembled nations at Olympia, it would have been
rather difficult for Herodotus to choose any part which should
please all. Some passages most creditable to part of the
Greeks, at the same time reflect most severely on others. Further
than this; it is almost the concurrent voice of antiquity that the
reputation of Herodotus was never universal ; he told too much
truth to win the universal approbation either of his own age or
of those who, like Plutarch, could not pardon him for giving
the treacherous Boeotians their due share of censure. We
assume, then, that if Herodotus read anything at Olympia, he
read nine books of his history, which, if not finished to the last
corrections, were complete in all their essential parts. Hero-
dotus was then not thirty * years of age (see Dahlmann,

f Herodotus was born B.C. 484. Thucydides, according to the account of
Suldas, at the time of this supposed reading at Olympia^ was a youth (fifteen
years old according to Mr. Negris), and the story will suit this age better
than any other, t^ircher places this public reading at the commencement of
the eighty-first Olympiad; or s.Ct 45p; which would make Herodotus only

128 Neffris^s Herodotus.

p. 20) ; is it likely that, at this early age, he had travelled so
far, and written a work which looks more like the labour of an
old man than a young one ? ' I ask,* says Dahlmann, ' this
short question— could he then with any propriety call iEschylus
a poet of the earlier times (vofur^o/y ta/v v/JoycvopieWv), who, at
the time of this recitation, had not been dead one single year? '
To this remark it may, perhaps, be replied, that such passages,
which are very numerous in Herodotus, may have been inserted
by him at a much later period. This may be so, and in some
instances certainly has been the case.

Plutarch in his treatise on the Malignity of Herodotus {if^pX
tSs *lipol6rov KaKom^eiotf, vol. iv. p. 431, ed. Wyttenbach) says
nothing of this recitation at the Olympic games, and we infer
that the story was not known to him. It may be said, that as
it was the design of Plutarch to exhibit Herodotus in the most
odious light, he had a manifest object in saying nothing at all
of the judgment pronounced by assembled Greece in favour of
the historian of the Persian wars. But to this we may rejoin
(Dahlmann, p. 33) that Plutarch, on this supposition, must
have been both a knave and a fool — a knave for suppressing a
species of testimony which a fair judging critic ought to have
placed in the opposite scale to his own harsh censure ; and a
fool for not attempting to overthrow the credit of the Olympic
story, Avhich, if true, would prove that the contemporary Greeks,
some of whom must have been most sensitive to the sharp cri-
ticism of Herodotus on their conduct, unanimously awarded
him the meed of praise. We recommend the reader to Dahl-
mann^s work for a discussion of this and other passages in the
life of the great historian.

This edition is very neatly printed, and also, as far as we
have examined, exceedingly correct. The notes to the first
four books occupy only fifty small pages, — a space far too
limited to allow anything like complete or satisfactory com-
ment. Indeed we have no reason for supposing that the editor
intended to offer his remarks as anything more than brief helps.
Our opinion is, that such short notes, especially on an author
like Herodotus, can be of no use at all; in Mr. Negris's notes,
hundred of passages are necessarily left without comment,
which require illustration more than those passages on which
notes are made. With respect to emendations of classical
authors, as a general rule, we object to them altogether; and to
most of those introduced into the text by the editor we have

tfirentyeight. Marcellinus, in his life of Thucydides, as Dahlmann remarks,
does not say where the recitation took place* It might be the later recitation
at Athens^ and not that atOlympia.<-*See Dahlmann, p, 33.

Negris's Herodotus. 129

particular and specific objections. We shall remark on a few
instances where the editor seems to have done some service,
and on others where he seems likely to mislead.

Lib. i, chap. i. ^Apyos . . . irpo^'i'/js iTracdi ruv, &c., is trans-
lated — ' Argos surpassed at that time in every thing the cities
of the country, &c." This, we believe, is the correct interpre-
tation; but the editor would prefer avaffiar^y if the MSS.
allowed it. We are glad that he has not preferred it in spite of
the MSS., for we really do not see what there is to object to in
the ordinary reading. It is hardly correct to say — 'supply
XpinfjiacTi or vpiyy^oLai ' with ivoLOt : xpnt^x and vpayf^x do not
mean the same thing *.

Chap, 7. — The editor has changed the usual reading of
twenty-two generations into fifteen, alleging in defence thereof
Herod, ii. 142, Avhere three generations are reckoned equiva-
lent to one hundred years. There can be little doubt about
some corruption lurking in the text, but we prefer keeping it as
it is to any emendation that can be proposed.

Chap. 14.— Ft/yiof . . . dviir&fjiyl/e ayahyitMtrat Is AeX^ot/r ovk
oKiyoL' oKK* o<ya f^ev dpyupov dwi^rtfAara etrri ol ffKeitjrat sv AeX^riTf.
' Construe as follows : oKKa vXsiffra iffot /utev dvadrtfxarv, an
idiomatic expression for a great number of offerings.^ If
Herodotus used such idioms as this, neither the editor nor any
body else could understand him. The words are as clear as
words can be, if a man will only look straight at them without
perverting the arrangement which, to the mind of the author,
conveyed his own meaning : — ' whatever oflFerings of silver there
are at Delphi, his are most.' The editor also gives another
version nearly the same as this, but he construes the last clause
in the following order : — grXcTjTa Ijt/v oI. It is surprising that
it is not seen that 6<mv ol can only stand where it does, if we
wish to keep the meaning which the author intended.

Chap. 17. — vvo ivpiyym, ' accompanied by the sound of
pipes.' There is no objection to the translation, but we do not,
with the author, consider uttq as equivalent to yi»sri either here
or in similar passages.

Chap. 24. — rovs Se ev rSJ veXiyei smfiovK^ueiv tov ^Apiovat
lx/3otXovraf e'x**^ '*'* Xp'fiy^oLra. * This is one of the many
examples to be found in diflferent authors where Iv is used for if.
The meaning is as if the Greek ran thus : — r. 5. Iv., Ix. t. 'A.
If TO veX^yyof, 6. r. %. This passage, which has embarrassed
many of the learned, appears to me in nowise obscure or ambi-
guous,' &c. The meaning certainly is what the editor has given

• In Thjacyd. i. 9, there is a usage of ir^wx^fh ^l^e this usage in Herodotus.
Oct. 1833— Jan. 1834. K

ISO Negri8*8 Herodotus.

by the new arrangement of words, but this is only part of the
meaning. We were not aware before that this was a passage
which required a note at the present day. The meaning is : —
the sailors when they were out at sea (cv rS) gr(\«yei) conspired
to throw Arion overboard, &c.

Chap. 31.— lx)cXiqVo/x€voi it np ipri. The editor thinks no
correction necessary here, nor do we : he says — ' some would
substitute ixSvo/asvoi, and il^iXmoufMvoi.^ It is not worth while
recording such absurd proposed changes : one of them —
2{8Xaioi//u.8voi — has not even the merit of being intelligible here.

Chap. 38,— S<s^&«^/iAiyoy r^v axo^v. The editor changes
axo^v into feovnv. 'The word Koj^ot, § 34, signifying rov xo^divr^
urn i^tpB^ivrat rviv ov», i.e,, a mute, as we may infer from § 85,
a sense in which it is used indeed by all the ancient authors,
I have no doubt that some copyist, ignorant of the true meaning
of xa;^ Of, wrote daoiy instead of (puiiriv, being led into this error by
the more recent signification of the word, and that which it
still retains in modern Greek, viz., deaf,'

This is rather a bold change, and quite an unnecessary one.
It appears as if the editor had a notion that the bit of Greek'
which he has given explains the etymological origin of the
word, into the elements of which he seems to think that o%|/
enters. The primary meaning of xo/^os- is nothing more than
blunted, made dull, round, heavy, and lifeless, and it is peculiarly
applicable to a blunted weapon. The word xa;^of, in chap. 34,
seems to us to express the general state of the youth's faculties,
who was certainly both deaf and dumb. Herodotus, no doubt,
knew that a person born absolutely deaf continues, as a matter
of course, dumb also ; and such a person must always remain
dumb, unless he is properly educated. In referring then to the
want of hearing, as the great physical defect, the old writer did
more wisely than his new editor in making the change.

Such a note as the following might have been omitted :—
chap. 41, vpos Se rourco : ' I have followed this reading, which
has the support of one MS., considering it superior to the com-
mon text,— w^of ie rovro : but I should prefer srpor 5e, h rovro
im\ (fi, if I had the authority of M^.' By referring to
Schweighaeuser's * Varietas Lectionis,' it appears that threef
MSS. have flr/)or h rovrto : Schsefer adopted it from Reiske's
conjecture, and Schweighaeuser kept it. We do not, therefore,
understand what is meant by saying that the common text
has Tfpos^ Se rovro. The new reading which the editor would
prefer, if the MSS. allowed it, is an old conjecture of Valk-
naer's, adopted by Reiz.

Chap. 50. The editor very properly keeps rpiro^t ni^iriXayrh,

Negris*ft Herodotus. 43^

Schweighseuser's correction for rpiai ^g/UrirA^vrcr. We think he
ought to have referred to the corrector's name ; as it stands now,
a reader may very fairly infer^ that the correctipn was made by
the present editor^ though we do not think that it was his wish
to convey this impression. The same remark appli^^ to the
followinof note.

Chap. 62. For the common reading ^AxafvAvy supported by
all the MSS.^ the editor writes ^Anapysv^, which, he says^ ' is
Ionic for 'A%a/>v6vf,' ^Axatpvev^ ia Valknaer'a conjecture,
adopted by Schsefer and Borheck ^ which, says Schweighseusei*,
must be the true reading, or eke 'Axa/^vewr. We doubt the
propriety of any change.

Chap. 84, near the end, for xar' avrov, the editor writer
pi.€r* auroy, contrary to the best MS. We think xariis right,
Schweighdeuser compares a similar usage in iii. 4»

Chap, 92.—' xm^ou is a correction for Ky<i(pifiiiov, the shop of
a carder^ which is the ordinary reading, but which certainly
conveys a very ridiculous meaning.' It slM>ukl have been added>
that Kvi(piiv is Wesseling*s correction, whidi certainly app^afrs
necessary on comparing iv. 14. The general di8tincti<y]^
between nouns in -of and -eiov, intimated by the editor, is qtiite
correct, but as many words in -eiov, such as dyyeTay, (rfaiysTov, &c.,
do not refer to l^hops or buildings, the correction of We«seling,
though probable, is not quite certain.

Chap. 97.— The editor considers hk^9 the pres. inf. of
iixiw, not the future of hKaii^<». We never saw the verb huMut
before.

Chap. 109. — * 61 il deXticTEf « ^ . avae/8^v«i. The same with
dvafirKTsrat. B. ii. § 11^ eds'kii<j& hurpiy^ty for hkrpt4fB»^ &e.
These and many similar examples (see note B. vii. § 104),
both in Herodotus and other authors, are sufficient to show that
the paraphrastic future formed by means of the auxiliatty v«#b
diXaj, used by the Modem Greeks, is of very ancient origin,'
This opinion, we believe, is correct ; and Ihougb the doctrine
has been laid down before, it has not vet met with thd;t general
reception to which it is entitled. A similar remark applies
to some usages of %%(u, en whieh see the e^ot's note on
chap. 120.

Chap. 120. — ' iiQit6^f eYyjs. The eottimon reading is
IwrdS^af ^/>xe, but I prefer ik»tiifit9 «*%€, VSed for Jt6ra|«*' The
editor should define whi^ he meane by the common reading :
9^XB is not found in Schaefer, Borheek, nor Schweighseuser.
Though it seems quite clear, as the editor maintains, that
6X^ was used by the ancient Greeks as an auxiliary verby it
does not IbUpw that it is exaetly ei^valent to the aorist,

132 Negris's Herodotus*

When the Nurse (Tfo^os), speaking of Medea's wrongs,
says :—

fjLST avisos is a$8 vvv ariyi,iaots ?X^*«' — Med. 32.

it is dear that the aorist would not express so strongly the sig-
nification of 'a husband who has wronged her, and whose
injury is not repaired/ The Greek phrase— olSrof ai dnyLoidots
"ix^h is a> more strictly intelligible expression than our ' this
man has dishonoured you : * the passive notion expressed
by the form 'dishonoured' is inconsistent with the leading
notion of the sentence, which is that of the active agency of
the injurer.

Chap. 155. — ^The editor reads — * ri. ii vuv »a§fiovr« Haxrvfis
yiq l^ri 6 diMBCJv, r^ av »virq§yl/as 2fipiis oiros Soro; rs (h Six9}v.'
The change consists in writing ri ol for roi> and taking away the
comma a&r Sardis. As the text usually stands, it may aidmit
of explanation thus : — * as Pactyes is the culprit, let him be

Eunisned by your governor of Sardis; ' i.e., of course when Darius
ad sent somebody to release the governor from his blockade.
If this interpretation is objected to, and there are several reasons
against it, we must translate thus : — ' as Pactyes is the culprit,
to whom you intrusted Sardis,' &c. But this appears to be at
variance with chap. 153, where we are told that the command
of the city was intrusted to Tabalus, a Persian. The reader
may consult Schweighseuser*s note on this passage, which he
will probably not consider satisfactory, nor are we able to pro-
pose anything better than what we have done. The iorw ri of
the editor we cannot admit, because this correction of the
passage by the introduction of re is not consistent with the
Herodotean usage of that little word, as far as we under-
stand it

Chap. 167.—' rwv ie iiotf^aqsiaicifv veojv rovs aviqas, oi rs
Ka^^9}Sov{0i, xau ol Tivqffnvol eXa%6y re aurojv iroXK^ TrXelovs, xai
roiirovs el^yayovres ycareKevaoLy,^ the editor has the following
remark : — ' to understand this passage we must arrange the
words as follows— oT re K. xariXeuaacv xai ol Tt/§ffyivoJ, o7 voKKu
vXelovs adrojv Xaypyres, xaJ rovrovs e^rtyayov^ We readily
plead our total ignorance of the meaning of this passage after
the editor's new arrangement : what have we to do with the
arrangement of the words of Herodotus ? he has arranged them
himself, and if we alter his arrangement, we may make sense
into nonsense, but that is the full extent of our arranging powers
when thus applied to his text.

Chap. 174.— The words— i§7p^€viif ie Ix rrtf xe^aovri(Tou riis

Negris's Herodotus. 133

are arranged thus in the note :— r* roif XH^^^'^^^^ ^^ '^^^ Kv«5/*)f
dqyfj.BV'fi^ ex t^js" Bt/i8flf(T(T/oof, 6ov(T7)f Ts wacmr vsqtppoov, «rXiv oXiyms i
the Peninsula of CnidiOj beginning from BybasstUt and &c.
The perplexed construction of the text has led some critics to
imagine that there was a peninsula called Bybassia^ but pro-
bably it was only a small district of Asia bordering upon the
peninsula of Cnidia.' But Herodotus says there was a penin-e
sula called Bybassia {Ik rri^ x^^croviQffot; ttj^ Bv^oiffffifis), and as
to the order of the words, nothing could be clearer. The sub-
ject of which predication is made is — r^r Kvi J/ior, the Cnidia,
which, as the historian tells us, began at, or from, the Cher-
sonese Bybassia, and was completely surrounded by water,
except a small portion where the canal was dug, which was to
defend the Cnidia on the land side, that is, on the side of the
peninsula of Bybassia; the existence of which peninsula, then
called Bybassia, is as distinctly affirmed in this passage as if
Herodotus had written a long chapter about it.

Chap* 194. — ^The editor has retained $otv»xt)*ot;r, which has
been commonly changed into ^oivixt}«o«;, though, as far as we
understand Schweighaeuser's remark, all the MSS. have the
accusative. We are inclined to think the editor is right in
retaining the MS. reading, and yet we doubt whether the
editor's interpretation of ' casks made of the date-tree ' is right.
Our reason for doubting about this is that the date-tree is not
adapted for making staves.

We have here examined a few of Mr. Negris's notes on the
first book : from our remarks it will appear that we generally
differ from him as to the propriety of his emendations, and fre-
quently also as to the accuracy of his explanation. If we were
to pass an opinion on the notes to the r^st of the work^ it would
not be materally different.

( 134 )

HEBREW LITERATURE.

OuE object in the present article is briefly to notice gome of
the most recent pubUcationi) on Hebrew, which may be use-
ful to students and learnersi who have not the opportunity of
making themselves regularly acquainted with the progress of
this branch of philology. We observe that the Uev. Alfred
Jenour, author of a translation and exposition of Isaiahi had
a similar intention when be composed bis —

TreatUe on Languages, their Origin, Structure, and Con-
nexions, and the best Method of teaching them; contain-
ing an Account of the most useful Elementary Books in
Latin, Greek, French, Italian, Spanish, and German, as
also in Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and Hindostanee, with
particular Directions for the Study of the Hebrew, and a
Summary of its Grammar. London, 1832, 8vo, pages xi.
172, price OS, 6d.
We think that the intention specified in the title is so much
beyond human powers, that Ave cannot feel disappointed in
finding the information given in this work very defective and
inaccurate, even as to the spelling of the names of authors
whose works are recommended. We will endeavour to
supply some defects of Jenour's treatise, by briefly pointing
but those Hebrew works only which are the best in their kind
at the conclusion of the year 1833. We most properly begin
with Gates and Introductions, as

The Gate to the Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, unlocked
by a hew and easy Method of acquiring the Accidence,
By the Author of the Gate to the French, Italian, and
Spanish unlocked. London, 1828, 8vo. price 7*« ^d.
The author of this book (Goodbugh) begins with asserting,
in the words of Celerier, whose Hebrew Grammar we have
mentioned in No. XI, of our Journal, a fact of which none
will doubt who reads our pages : ^ 11 est de fait que T^tude de
TH^breu, comme celle des autres langues Orientales, reprend
en beaucoup de lieux une nouvelle vie. La Society Biblique,
couvrant le monde entier de ses presses et de ses traducteurs,
ranime partout la science des livres saints.' This Gate con-
tains a curious collection of testimonies in behalf of the
Hebrew language, like that of Addison in his Spectator,
No. 405 : * There is a certain coldness and indiflPerence in
the phrases of our European languages, when they are com-
pared with the Oriental forms of speech, and it happens very
luckily, that the Hebrew idioms run into the English tongue
with peculiar grace and beauty. Our language has received

flebrew Literature^ 139

innuQierable elegancies and improvements from that infuaioh
of Hebraisms which are derived to it out of the poetical pas-
sages of Holy Writ, They give force and energy to our
expression, warm and animate our language, and convey our
thoughts in more ardent and intense phrases^ than any that
are met with in our own tongue. There is something so
pathetic in this kind of diction^ that it often sets the mind
in a flame, and makes our heart burn within us. How cold
and dead doth a prayer appear that is composed in the most
elegant and polite forms of speech which are natural to our
tongue^ when it is not heightened by that solemnity of
phrase which may be drawn from the Sacred Writings I It
has been said by some ancients that if the gods were to talk
with men> they would certainly speak in Plato's style ; but I
think^ we may say^ with justice, that when mortals converse
with their Creator, they cannot do it in so proper a style as
that of the Holy Scriptures,' &c. The greater part of this
f Gate ' is filled up with extracts concerning schools, litera-
ture, and learned men among the Jews, their forms of devo-
tion, versions of the Bible, on Arabic and Persian literature,
notices of remarkable linguists, and a notice of the Mutu^
Education Society from the Monthly M agaziiie for May, 1821 •
We are informed that Dr. Spencer, at Bristol, conceived^
some years before 1821, the idea of forming an institution in
which the languages of Holy Writ should be taught gra-
tuitously; and that he commenced his plan by obtaining
from each individual a solemn promise that he would, at
the expiration of three years, take four other pupils, and
instruct them gratuitously in all those things which he should
be taught in this Institution for acquiring an accurate, critical
knowledge of the Holy Scriptures in their original language.
Under this condition, he took four young men as students,
whom he instructed in their own language grammatically^ in
rhetoric, logic, the Hebrew of the Old Testament, the Greek
of the Septuagint and the New Testament; besides this, the
students read with him the history of the empires with which
the Jews were connected, and studied the customs of the Jews^
and other eastern nations. Christian ecclesiastical history, &c.
The increasing character of this Institution, surpassing Kabbi
Akiba and his 40,000 disciples, was calculated as follows : —
Founder . - . . 1

In three years completes the education of 4 students,

who finish in 6 years • • 16

•7 • • • OtC

12 . . . 256

16 , . . 1024

18 . . . 4096

136 Hebrew Literature.

At this ratio it wag calculated, the author gravely informs us^
that^ after thirty years, one niillion forty-eight thousand five
hundred and seventy-six Hebrew scholars would be formed ;
so that if their multiplication had not been unexpectedly
checked, it is quite evident that^ long before a century had
elapsed, the number of Hebraists would have been more
than all the millions who at present inhabit our terraqueous
globe.

There are added to the * Gate * twenty-one lithographic
plates, which exhibit some abridgments of the Hebrew,
Arabic, and Syriac grammar, but they are not very accurate.
The constituent parts of the ^ Gate ' are amusing, but inco-*
berent gleanings,

/IDM XW7 MUD. A practical Introduction to Hebrew^
with an Appendix^ containing critical Observations on
the Spanish and Portuguese Pronunciation of the
Sacred Tongue. By G. F. Walker. London, 1833. 8vo,
pages 64.

This work is for the use of persons desirous of acquiring a
knowledge of Hebrew, who are as yet unacquainted with
the characters of the alphabet; it is not intended to supply
the place of a grammar, but merely to serve as an intro-
duction to one.

The following passage is characteristic : ' a knowledge of
the Hebrew language may be deemed essential to every one
who would rightly understand the Word of God, but to
royal arch-masons it is peculiarly so, inasnmch as it is the
language in which everything that could be written respect*
ing the mysteries in arch-masonry has been recorded. It is
true, the well-instructed arch-masons well know where to
find translations of the works referred to ; but it is equally
true that no other language is capable of exhibiting the ety-
mology and signification of Hebrevi^ words in the manner of
the onginal ; for that power which exists in the characters of
the Hebrew alphabet, suitable to the nature of things ex-
pressed by words composed of them, is wanting in other
languages. Thus the beauty of the passage

Gen. ii, 23. nW nnpb t^«D ^3 TWlk «-)p> DMt!?

is lost in translation ; for there is no ^ther language that
possesses the faculty of forming a word in a regular manner,
suitable to denote a female human creature grown to ma-
turity,*

Concerning the last assertion,, we might observe that the
authorized English version has rendered this passage most

Hebrew Literature » 137

exactly: * She shall be called woman (womb-man), because
she was taken out of man.' So also has the Arabic,

In a. similar manner the passage is exactly rendered in
several dialects, in some of which, it was necessary to fram^
a new Avord for thi3 passage, as —
Symmachus : Avr'h xkri^ricjsrxi acvipls on ek rov avipo^ aurvs

Vulgatus : Hsec vocabitur virago, quia de viro sumta est.
Xautes Pagninus : Vocabitur virissa, quia de viro sumta est

ista.
Tremellius et Junius: Heac vocabitur vira, eo quod h^c ex viro

desumta est.
Diodati : Costei sara chiamata Hiiomay conci5 sia cosa ch' ella

sia statn tolta dall' Huomo.
Spanish, Basilese 1569: Esta sara llamada Farona^ porque

del Varon fue tomada esta.
Portuguese d'Alraeida : Esta serd chamada Varoa, porque do

Varao foi tomada.
So the old French version has hofhace, and Osterwald
hommesse.

In a similar manner several translators in the Teutonic
languages before and after Luther : —
German : Man wird sie Maunin heissen, darum dass sie vom

Manne genommen ist.
Dutch (Dordrecht translation): Men zalze Manninne heeten ;
om datze uit den man genomen is.
In a similar manner the Flemish.
Swedish : Hon skal beta Manna, ther fore, athon ar taghen

uthoff mannemon.
Danish : Denne hun skal kaldes mandinde, thi denne er tagen
af manden.
But whilst we object against the overstatement that no
language could furnish an adequate expression for Pftt^K, we
are fully convinced that every translation is, in comparison
with its original^ only like the wrong side of a beautiful tex*
ture compared with the right.

Mr. Walker supports his statements concerning the niceties
of Hebrew pronunciation with numerous quotations from
Rabbinical writers.

Our readers are aware that, of late years, no individual has
had a greater influence on the revival of Hebrew learning
than Dr. Wilhelm Gesenius of Halle, whose lexicographical
works have been mentioned in No. XL p. 90^ &c,^ of our

138 Hebrew Literature.

Journal. The other works by which Gesenius hag advanced
the study of Hebrew are the following, the prices of which
we have marked in Prussian dollars, which have the value of
3^. each.

Geschichte der hebrdischen Sprache und Schrift. Eine
philologisch historische Einleitung in die SprachleAren und
fFbrterbucher der hebrdischen Sprache. Leipzig, 1815,
price \^ dollar.

The substance of this history of the Hebrew language and
literature either has been, or shortly will be, published iu
English, with additions and corrections, by Professor Stuart,
of Andover, in North America.

Other works are —

De Fentateuchi Samaritani Origine, Indole^ et AuctoHlate
Commentatio philologica vritica. Hal«, 1815, 4to. price ^
dollar.

Ausjuhrlich grammatisch-kritisches Lehrgebdude der he-
brdischen Sprache y mit FergUichung der vertvandten Dialecte.
Leipzig, 1817, 8vo. price 4 dollars,

I)er Prophet Jesaia^ ubersetzt und mit einem vollstdn-
digen philologischen kritischen und historischen Commentar
begleitet. Leipzig, 1821, 4 vols. 8vo. price 8 dollars.

The translation contained in the first volume is sold sepa-
rately.

«/. L, Burckhardfs Reisen in Jfyrien, Palaestina, und der
Gegend des Berges Sinai aus dem Englischen^ mit Anmer-
kungen von Gesenius^ mit Charten^ Pldnen, und vielen Grie-
chischen und Semitischen In&chriften* Weimar, 1823, 3
dollars.

Anecdota Orientalia, Fasc, I.

Also, under the title : — Carinina Samaritana e Codicibus
Londinensibvs et Gothanis edidit et Interpretatione Latina
cum comment, illustravit Guil. Gesenius. Lipsiae, 4to. 1^
dollar.

De Inscriptione Phcenicio-Grceca in Cyrenaica nuper
reperta. Commefitatio philologico-critica, Halse, 4to, ^
dollar.

Hebrdisches Lesebuch. Fifth edition. Halle, 1828, |
dollar.

. This Hebrew Chrestomathy, or delectus, bears also the
title of Hebrdisches Elementarbuchy 2^"^ TheiL

The first volume of the Hebrew elementary work is the He-
brdische Grammatik^ Zehnte sehr verbesserte, vermehrte und
theilweise umgearbeitete Aujlage. Halle> 1831, 8vo,, price
^ dollar.
. Gesenius has obtained by these and his other works

Hebrew Literadire. 139

noticed in Number XL of this Journal^ a kind of imperial
authority in everything relating to Hebrew, which may be
compared with that once exercised by Goethe on the belies
lettres of Germany, This authority has increased the in-
fluence of Gesenius as a teacher, and in this respect has
been favourable to the study of Hebrew; but it might have
produced at last an implicit acquiescence in his discoveries
and a stagnation of research^ if it had not excited a reaction
which manifested itself in the works of Ewald, and in the
applause with which they were received, especially by those
supra-naturalists^ who, like Hengstenberg, in his work on the
Messianic prophecies, {Die messianischen Weissagungen des
Alten Testamentes^) impugned the rationalism of his age, and
who, without finding in Ewald a decided supra-naturalist,
nevertheless employed his authority in order to invalidate
that of Gesenius, who inclines to rationalism.

The reader will not expect to find in the work of Ewald
{KriUsche Oramrnatik der hebrdischen Sprache ausfuhrlich
bearbeitet von D. Georg. Heinrich. August. Ewald, Repetent an
der theologischen Facultat in Gottingen. Leipzig, 1827, 8vo,
Pages iv. 684), the elementary facts of Hebrew grammar en-
tirely different from those which were stated by the Buxtorfs
father, son, and grandson, and by Gesenius and his followers
in Europe and America. The characteristics of Ewald's
Grammar consist, in his manner of accounting for the ge-
neral rules, and in his attempts to refer the rules and their
apparent exceptions to more general principles. But this
laudable aim leads Ewald into a number of new conjectures,
which, in his Critical Grammar, he pronounces authorita-
tively against his predecessors in terms like the fpllowing : —
* The division of the vowels into three classes, which was
introduced by Trendelenburg, and adopted by most of the
modern grammarians (Gesenius, Lehrgehdude^ p. 36) is en-
tirely false ^ It has no gocfd reasons, and overlooks entirely
the relation of segol with patach^ — Krit. Gr., p. 69. * The
pronunciation of u for kibbuz is entirely false.' See the
erroneous ideas concerning, kibbuz and schurek in the
' Lehrgebaude of Gesenius,' &c. p. 36.— Krit. Gr. 69. ' The
first C) in Tli is not mobile, as Gesenius thinks.' According

to the whole spirit of the system it must be o quiescent.
The long vowel arises from the accent only, &c. ^ The
circumstance that 11^ might be said for 11^ does not prove

the identity of c :> and ( » ).' Kr. Gr. 73.

The conjectures of Ewald were, however, generally sup-
ported by independent investigations, the results of which

140 Hebrew Literature

were rendered more accessible to students in his shorter
grammar (Grammaiik der hebrdischefi Sprache des A, T, in
vollstdndigen Kurzeneti bearbeitet von G. H. A. Ewald, a. o.
Professor zii Gottingen. Leipzig, 1828. 8vo. p. xvi. 34.)
and in the Hebrew Manual for school instruction. (He-
brdisches Lesehuch fur den Gymnasial-Unterricht mit Hin-^
tveisungen auf die Sprachlehren des Herrn Professor Ewald
und einigen Anmerkungen desselben von H. D. A. Sonne,
Leipzig, 1830, 8vo. p. xx. 164.) Winer's Lexicon Hebraicum,
1828, which was, until the last lexicon of Gesenius in
1833 was published, for about five years the best work of its
kind, contributed, by its references, to tliat general authority
which £wald*s grammar obtained. Various improvements
in the recent editions of the Hebrew Grammars by Moses
Stuart, Samuel Lee, and Wilhelm Gesenius, might be traced
to Ewald.

Mr. Roorda being obliged to lecture, according to the
regulations in Holland, in Latin, felt the necessity of com-'
posing a new grammar, in which he incorporated the im»
provements made since the time of Schroeder, whose * In-
stitutiones ad Fundamenta Linguse Hebraic®/ last edition,
Glasguae, 1824, was formerly the text-book of the students
at Amsterdam, and, we presume, in all the Athensea and uni-
versities of Holland and Belgium.

The new text-book, which is now used in the lectures on
Hebrew grammar at Amsterdam and Leyden, was composed
by Roorda, with the friendly assistance of his former teacher,
Arentius Hamaker, professor of oriental languages at Ley-
den. It bears the title of Grammatica Hebreeaauctore Tacone
Roorda. Folumen prius, de Elementis Fbcibusque simpHci-
bus. Lugduni Batavorum. 183K 8vo. pages xxii, 285;
it sells in London for twelve shillings. The second vo*
lume will contain the Syntax. Roorda's work will be useful
to those who are desirous of knowing somewhat of Con-
tinental Hebrew Grammaticography» and are unable to
read the German originals of Gesenius^ Ewald, Hupfeld»
Stier, &c«

The most recent important work on Hebrew Grammar,
which is still scarcely known in Germany, and not yet, as
far as we know, imported into England, is, —

Neu Geordnetes Lehrgebdnde der hebrdischen Sprache
nach den Grundsdtzen der Sprach-entwickelung als durch^
gdngige Hinweisung auf eine allgemeine Sprachlehre

Hebrew Literature. 141

dargestellt von Rudolf Stier, Pfarrer in Frankleben bei
Merseburg. Erster und Zweiter Theil. Die Laut und
Wortlehre. Leipzig, 1833, 8vo. page xvi. 507.
Havings in the present Number, no space to substantiate our
assertion, we merely direct the attention of British scholars
to the existence of this work, which will soon become ge-
nerally known; and, we venture to predict, it will also be
translated, or at least imitated, although the author, being
a country clergyman, has not the same opportunity as
professors at the universities of reducing his theory to
practice. It is the best work now extant in any language on
the elements, and what is usually called the Etymology of
Hebrew. The Syntax, it is said, will be published in a
separate volume. The excellence of Stier's grammar consists
especially in his always establishing the rule of general
grammar before he proceeds to its application to Hebrew.

Having mentioned what we believe to be the best grammar,
which, being written in German, is not accessible to most
English scholars, we may add, that the best Hebrew Dic-
tionary, as we consider it, has lately been published in Latin,
namely, Lexicon Manuale Hebraicum et Chaldaicum in
Feteris Testamenti Libros, Post Editionem Germanicam
Latine elaboravit multisque modis retractavit et auxit Guil.
Gesenius, Philos. et Theol. Doctor huj usque in Academia
Halensi, P. P. O., &c. Dies diem docet. Lipsiae, 1833, 8vo.
pages X. 1123. This work sells at the foreign booksellers
in London for about twenty shillings. It differs from the
former German and English editions of this work in having
a better arrangement of the primary and secondary signifi-
cations of words. Gesenius acknowledges that he owes in
this respect some improvements to Winer. Gesenius has also
made some etymological enlargements, pointing out the con-
nexion between Hebrew and the Indo-Germanic languages :
for instance, such as TM?!Q* ^s/S'o;. This book has an excellent
Latin index, which may serve as a Lexicon Latino- Hebrai-
cum ; and the work will probably remain the best of its kind
till Gesenius himself has finished his Thesaurus, of which
the first fasciculus was published J 829, 4to., or until Pro-
fessor Lee in his Lexicon, which has been announced, em-
bodies the information of Gesenius.

The Ubl2 I^IID. -^ Hebrew and English Lexicon, by Mi-
chael Josephs. London : printed for the Author, and sold by
Pelham Richardson, 23, Cornhill, 1833, 8vo. price 106\ Qd,
is not yet complete. We perceive, from the perusal
of the first half, that the author has avoided several defects

1 42 Hebrew Literature^

in Mr. Newman's Dictionary, which we mentioned in Num-
ber VIII. of our Journal ; and the present w.ork, altboagh
it is rather a vocabulary than a dictionary, will probably be
for some time the best in its kind. We do not, however,
altogether approve of the entire omission of articles like
Abbot y Abbess^ Convent y Monk, Monastery, &c., for which
either the Rabbinical literature furnishes corresponding
terms, or which might be given by approximation. Instead
of these words, others, like Abba^ Algorism^ Meatman^ Sec,,
being of rare occurrence, might have been spared if it was
necessary to condense the work.

The articles Abstruse and Abstruseness have been rendered
by D^D3> JS\r\0, n. We think that ilt^ mas, and kW}> fem.

expresses the idea more exactly. The words Absurd and
Absurdity have been translated by circumlocution ll'T

b^)th l^ini^n and by r6D3l. rfT\H- The root TJJ does not

occur in the Old Testament in the IHthpad and in this aensei

^6^i/n/should be translated PVD ^^^»^S)D r6s^< Under the ar-

tide to Abhor f might have been mentioned ^r\, as it occurs

Deut. vii. 26. VtD3 ODD /TTHn^S-^j; ra^in N^in tk%
:i*^n Din •'3 ^mfnrs ny/n ^^:ip;i^r\ XPV literally, and not

shalt thou bring abomination into thy house^ lest ihou
shouldst become a curse like unto it; detesting thou shalt
detest ity and abhorring thou shalt abhor it, because a curse
it (is). Compare Job ix. 31. xix. 19. Ps. v. 7-

In spite of such defects as we have pointed out« this Eng-
lish and Hebrew Lexicon is the best extant in English, al-
though not equal to a similar work published ten years
ago, under the title of Deutsche Hebrdisches fforterbuch.
ausgearbeitet von Dr. Johann Friedrich Schroder. Leipzig,
1823, 8vo. page x. 1040.

Whoever wishes to form an exact estimate of the great
progress which has been made in England in this branch of
lexicography may compare the work of Mr. Josephs with a
vocabulary in English and Hebrew, added to Robertson^s
Compendious Hebrew Dictionary, corrected and improved by
Nahum Joseph. Bath, 1814, 8vo. Such trifles as the pub-
lication just mentioned would at present find no encourage-
ment.

The most correct edition of the Hebrew classics is the last
reprint of Vander Hooght's Bible, which has been revised
by Mr. Hurwitz, and published by James Duncan, Pater-
noster Row. London, 1833, price 15^., and on better paper>
2is.

Hebrew lAterature, 143

The circumstance of Mr. Hurwitz having recom-
menced his lectures at the London University, and that the
Rev. Mr. Boys' lectures on Hebrew, in Middleton Square,
and at Brighton are well attended, are new proofs of the
increasing interest in England for the study of Hebrew.

The best philological commentary for beginners^ of recent
date, is, the Commentarius Orammaticus Criticus in Fetus
Testamentum in Usttm maxime Gymnasiortim et Academia-
rum adomatus. Scripsit Franc. Jos. Valent. Dominic.
Maurer Phil. Doct. Soc. Historico. Theol. Lips. Sod.Ord.
Fasciculus Primus. Lipsiae, 1832, 8vo. Fasciculus Se-
cundus, 1833. The principal merit of this book consists in
its judicious references to the recent grammatical works of
Gesenius and Ewald. RosenmuUeri SchoKa in Canipen-
dium redacta^ Lipsiae, 1832, contain far less grammatical
information than Maurer, but they are superior in historical
matter.

To sum up briefly the infonnation of the preceding pages, we
are of opinion that the best Hebrew text is contained in Hur-
witz's revision of Vander Hooght's Bible. London, 1833.
The best grammar is that of Rudolf Stier, 1833, or for the mere
English reader, that of Lee, 1832 — the best lexicon that of
Gesenius, 1833, or for the mere English reader, the translation
by Gibbs, published by Duncan, 1833. The best pocket
dictionary is. Lexicon Hebraicumy by Leopold, 1832, or the
Manual which we have noticed in our article on Hebrew
Grammars and Dictionaries in Number XI.

A Hebrew Grammofr, designed for the Use of Schools^ by
Christopher Leo. London, 1832, 8vo. price 4^. 6d,

Is one of the usual skeleton grammars, but it contains some-
what better information on the accents than many similar
publications. We have heard of a similar little grammar
by Mr. Oppenheimer, teacher of languages at Cambridge,
and of a Catechism of the Hebrew Grammar, belonging
to the set of Pinnock's Catechisms; probably not unlike to the

"^23} "Mh Tn mto das ist Elementarisches Unterrichtsbuch

• • • • •

zur Erlemung der Hebrdischen Sprache. Zum SchuU und
Privat'Gebrauchy von Moses Heinemann. Berlin, 1830.
Mr. Heinemann was convinced that a grammar without
any philology was a desideratum in our days, and he hopes
to have filled up this gap in literature. We consider that
monographs like the following are more useful than con-
stant repetitions of the Elements of Grammar under various
titles.

144 Hebrew Literature,

Die Hehrdischen Nomina, eine Beilage zu den Hebrdischen

Sprachlchren fur den Schulgebrauch, insbesondere aber

fur solche welche sich selbst unterrichten wollen, dar-

gestellt von Dr. Joh Fried. Schroder. Braunschweig',

1830, 8vo. pages vi. 58.
The author has omitted in this monograph on the Hebrew
nouns whatever has been fully explained by Gesenius and
Ewald. His work may be considered a supplement to the
most intricate part of Hebrew grammar.

The utility of exact translations cannot be doubted. The
book of Psalms has been oftener translated than other
parts of the Bible. Some of the best modern translations
of the Psalms are, —

/ Salmi di Davidde, iradotti dal Testo Originale dal
Dottore G. Bernardo de Rossi, Professore di Lingue Orien-
tal!. Parma. 1808. p. 282.

To this edition are added notes by the learned translator.

A New Translation of the Book of Psalms^ from the ori-
ginal Hebrew, tvith Explanatory Notes, by William French,
D.D., Master of Jesus College, and George Skinner, M.A.,
Fellow and Tutor of Jesus College. Cambridge and Lon-
don, 1830, 8vo. page vii. 253. price 8.9.

A very respectable performance, which most likely contri-
buted to the perfection of the following work : —

A New Translation of the Book of Psalms, with an Intro-
duction, by George R. Noyes. Boston, 1831, 8vo. p. xxviii.232.

This American translator is an able scholar, and his ver-
sion is perhaps the best of the Psalms in English, but his
introduction and arguments have. a rationalistic tendency.
The work sells in London at the American booksellers for
about 7s» Mr. Noyes' translation of Isaiah and most of the
Minor Prophets has been lately imported, price 7^.

jLa Bible; Traduction nouvelle, avec l^Hebreu en re-
gard, accompagne des Point s-voyelles et des Accens toniques
(iT1i^3^), avec des Notes Philologiques, Gdographiques et
Litt^raires, et les Variantes de la Version Septante et du
Texte Samaritain. Par S. Cohen, Directeur de TEcole
Israelite de Paris, &c. 1832.

Of this work three volumes have been published, centaining
Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus. The notes are mostly taken
from the 11^2 of the Pentateuch by Moses Mendelsohn^
and from other Jewish commentators, which are less known
among Christians. Sells in London for six shillings the volume.

Die Schriften des Alien Testametites iibersetzt von J. C.
W. Augusti, und W. M. L. De Wette, have been continued,
revised, and re-edited, by De Wette alone, under the title,—

Hehreiv Literature, 145

Die heilige Schrift des Allen und Netien Testamentes^
ubersetzt von Dr. W. M. L. De Wette. Heidelberg : 1832,
large 8vo., three volumes.

This edition^ which is, perhaps, the best German translation
now extant, contains the Apocrypha. The poetical books are
not metrically arranged as in the former edition of Augusti
and De Wette. The annotations are also omitted, and only
the variations of other translators briefly marked at the bot-
tom of the page.

Another good German translation is the revision of Lu-
ther^s, by the learned senator of Frankfort on the Maine,
Friedrich von Meyer, which has lately been printed several
times, with and without notes at the bottom of the page.

Some persons do not quite approve of the English of the
following work; but we consider it on the whole a good
translation.

The Book of the Prophet Isaiah^ translated from the Hebrew
Text of Van der Hooght* By the Rev. John Jones, M. A., Prae-
centor of Christ Church, Oxford, 1830, p. 204, price 6^.

Mr. Jones availed himself of the great work of Gesenius
on Isaiah, which we have mentioned.

Das Buck Hiob. Uebersetzmig und Auslegung nebst Ein-
leitung uber Geist^ Form und Verfasser des Buchs von D.
Friedrich Wilhelm Carl Umbreit, Ordentlichem Professor
der Theologie an der Universitat zu Heidelberg. Zweite
verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Heidelberg, 1832, 8vo.
p. Iviii. 387.

This is the best philological work on Job.

The best specimen of the art of translating with which
we have met is,

Hebrdische Propheten^ ubersetzt und erldutert von Friedrich
Riickert. Erste Lieferung, Uebersetzung von Jesaia, 40-66.
Uebersetzung von Hosea^ Joel, Amos, Obadja, Micha^ Na-
hum, Habakuk, Sephanja, Haggai, Zacharia^ 3faleachi.
Leipzig, 1831, 8vo., p. 144. Costs in London, 4.9. 6^/.

This translation is the most perfect which we have ever
seen in any language. Friedi*ich Riickert has used the Ger-
man with a freedom which will not be approved by those
who require for every expression some precedents from the
writings of Lessing, Schiller, and Gothe, but which is similar
to the boldness of biblical writers in Hebrew and Greek.
Mr. Riickert's surprising command of language is already
known, which enables him not only to express the metre
and the rhymes, but even the Iilsus verborum, assonances
and alliterations of Persian poetry.

The Roman Catholics of Germany have of late also shown

Oct. 1833.— Jan. 1834. L

146 Hebrew Literature.

that their knowledge of Hebrew did not die with Jahn. The
author of the following work Ia already known as a philolo«
gical traveller in the East, and as editor of the Greek New
Testament.

Die Zw6lf Kleiiien Propheten als Fqrfsetzung des Bren^
tano Dereser'schen Alten Testamentes aus dem Hebrdischen
iibersetzt und erkldrt von Dr. J. Martin Augustin Scholz.
Frankfurt am Main, 1833, 8vo. p, xiv, 410.

The same portion of the Old Testament has been lately
published under the title, —

A Literal Translation from the Hebrew of the Twelve Minor
Prophets^ with some Notes from Jonathan Yarchiy Aben
Ezra, D, Kimchi, and AbarbaneL By A. Pick, London,
1833, p. xii. 177, price lis.

The preface says :

• The excellences of the authorized translation of the Scriptures
have been much extolled, and have been diffused through society
by the recommendation of men able to decide on the subject. It
has, however, often been acknowledged, that this translation is not
faultless ; and though superior as a whole to anything that has yet
appeared, many of its parts are capable of improvement. The trans-
lators aimed continually at catching the spirit of the original lan-
guages, and in most instances they have succeeded to a wonderful
extent. Nevertheless, in the attempt they have sometimes lost sight
of the literal meaning of the inspired writer. The design, there-
fore, of any new translation should not be to set aside the autho-
rized version, but to act as an assistant to it, by directing the reader
to the plain grammatical reading of the original. Thus he maybe
enabled to enter more simply into the mind of the spirit, unshackled
by the views of men. This is the chief design of the present work.'

If this was the chief design, whoever compares its execution
with the Hebrew text will admit that Mr. Pick has missed his
mark, because his translation is less literal than the authorized
version. It both omits and adds some words, and others are
taken in a sense in which they never occur in the Bible. We
will only mention of the latter kind, one instance taken from
the first chapter of his book : * I will break the bow of Israel

for the deep iniquity of Jezreel' ^KVIP pDW. The authorized
version is: ^in the valley of Jezi'eel/ — sapienti sat. The
book abounds with unphilological innovations of this kind.

It appears that Mr. Pick, in his translation of the Minor
Prophets, like Mr. Bellamy in his Pentateuch, had a strong
inclination to differ from the authorized version. The word

P^i which, according to other translators, is vallis^ 'regio de«

pressa longe lateque patens,' ^a&hs rovos, and according to the
authorized version valley^ Thai, is according to Mr. Pick, deep

Hebrew Literature, 147

iniquity. Picus Mirandola seemis to have prophetically an-
nounced Pick's, as well as Bellamy's translation, * Movent
mihi stomachum grammatistae quidam, qui quum duas tenue-
rint (vel tenuisse sibi videantur) vocabularum origines, ita se
ostentant, ita venditant, ita circumferunt jactabundi, ut prae
ipsis eruditos, quotquot antea operi institerant^ pro nibilo
habendos arbitrentur.'

We hope that Mr. Bellamy, who is undoubtedly a man of
learning, but of wild and unsound learning, and who formerly,
by a sort of Rabbinical sagacity, was enabled to miss the sense
of the plainest passage, will improve those parts of his trans-
lation which he is just now publishing, according to the
instructive, but rather harshly expressed lessons of the
Vindiciae Hebraicaef or a Defence of the Hebrew Scrip--
turesy as a Vehicle of revealed Religion. Occasioned by the
recent Strictures and Lmovations of Mr. Bellamy, and in a
Confutation of his Attacks on all preceding IVanslations^ and
on the Established Version in particular. By Hyman Hur-
witz, London, 1820, 8vo., p. 270, price 9*.

The perusal of this severe but deserved reproof, by which
Mr. Hurwitz became generally known among Christian
divines in England, is strongly recommended to future trans-
lators.

To these translations from the Hebrew we add the follow-
ing translation into Hebrew : —

A New Revision of the New Testament in Hebrew^
by Dr. Neumann, of Breslau, edited by the late Mr.
Greenfield, waa published in 1831 by Mr. Samuel Bagster
of Paternoster Row for eight shillings, under the title,

pnw tvti^'n y\'\i}^ My^i^JM ^iiH •»3 ^y n^:nnr^ nnin ns)D
i6mo. vib'nn'n mwsn nyit}3. mb2. -.rvn^yn •?» rfymo :

This is an uncommonly beautiful volume. Several mistakes
of earlier editors have been avoided. In the editions of the

n2ir wV? iv wba pny^ n'^K^ '^^ b:f rwm nn^. Londini.

Typis excudebat. A Macintosh. 1821. 8vo., there remained
several mistakes even after the most distinguished scholars of
Great Britain and Germany had been employed in the re-
vision of this edition of the Hebrew New Testament. An
almost ridiculous blunder was the constant use of the word
m, which means in the Old Testament back or middle, for

tha Greek aZixM, For instance. Mat. vi. 22.

i» literally, "rt«0 nVP iy "^3 TVypn W D« 13^ t^ >?.f7 "'J

•Li

148 Hebrew Literature.

< the light of the back is the eye ; therefore, if thy eye be
perfect, thy whole back will be light.'

* And if thy eye be evil, thy i;m rriT "^yb^ H^n ^^"1? ^^

whole back shall be darkness.'

Since the word awiMt, is of very frequent occurrence in the
New Testament, it is of no sraall importance, that Neu-
mann and Greenfield have translated it correctly by PT^p

body*

We have not heard of any metrical compositions in Hebrew
being published in England since the P"1tt^ rST\>' A Hebrew
Dirge, chaunted in the Great Synagogue, St. James's Place,
Aldgate, on the Day of the Funeral of her Royal Highness
the Princess Charlotte, by Hymaii Hurwitz, with a transla-
tion in English verse, by S. F. Coleridge, Esq. London,
1817, 8vb., and ^m ^p. The Tears of a Grateful People,
a Hebrew Dirge and Hymn, chaunted in the Great Sy7%a-
gogue, St. James's Place, Aldgate, on the Day of the Fu-
neral of his late most sacred Majesty King George HI. of
blessed memory, by Hyman Hurwitz, translated into English
verse by a Friend. London, 8vo.

The philological influence of composition in Hebrew may .
be compared to that of Latin and Greek composition.
Whoever understands a language thoroughly is able to write
it, and the practice of writing tends to produce a still more
complete acquaintance with the language.

In Britain, where the public instruction in Hebrew has
been more defective than in Germany, Holland, and in the
United States, literature has endeavoured to make up the
deficiency of masters by the publication of Claves.

Davidis Regis Lyra Prophetica, sive Analysis critico
prcM:tica Psalmorum, in qua Voces omnigence ad regulas
artis revocantur, earum Signijicationes explicantur, et Fie-
ganticB LingucB evolvuntur. Addita: sunt Harmonia He^
brcei Textus cum Paraphrasi Chald<ea et Versions LXXII. ;
et brevis Institutio Linguce Hebrcece et Chald<Bce. Stu-
dio Victorini Bythneri, Ling. Hebr. Prof. The last edition
of this well-known work of a learned Pole is that of Glas-
gow, 1823, 8vo. price 20^. pages 370, and the Index and
Institutio, pages 126.

This useful book has passed through many editions in
England, and is now again out of print, which is also the
case with the Clavis Pentateuchi, Sfc, of Robertson. A new
edition of this work has been published; Fx recension

Hebrew Literature, 149

Joseph! Kinghorn^ cum Notts, necnon ultimis Animadver-
sionibus Auctoris doctissimi. Norvici, 1824, 8vo. pages xxv.
714. Index 43. price 285.

Books of this kind seem to sell better in England than
in Germany. They are useful to those beginners who are
debarred from vivd voce instruction.

Similar works are : —

Narratio de Josepho e sacro Codice desumta, Textum
Hebraicum Punctis appositis Maioreticis ad jlnalysin revo-
cavit Notisque phitologicis instruxit Stephanus Reay, A.B.,
Oxonii. E Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1822, p. viii. 218.

This work is adapted to Schroederi Institutiones LingusB
Hebra^ae, and is therefore now less useful, although in itself
superior to the following work : —

An Analysis of the Text of the History of Joseph, upon
the Principles of Professor Lee's Hebrew Grammar. By the
Rev. Alfred Olivant, M.A. Second Edition. London, 1833,
8vo.

The German Claves to the Psalms, by Professor Paulus of
Heidelberg, and by Dr. De Wette, are not written for mere
beginners ; this is also the case with the German Clavis by
Professor Paulus to Isaiah, which has been superseded by the
work of Gesenius on Isaiah,

MISCELLANEOUS.

FOREIGN.

FRANCE.

Alteration of the course of Study pursued in Public Schools,— A
new system, so far as the education of pupils is concerned, lias been
lately introduced into the Royal Colleges in the French metropolis.
The junior classes, from the sixth to the third, go through a
course of natural history, elementary mathematics, and geometry.
But when they quit the third class, they have the choice of one of
two distinct courses of study. The youth to whom languages and
literature are an object, enters into the second, and thence into the
rhetorical class ; whilst a course of special instruction in the higher
mathematics and natural sciences is open for the youth who is
not intended for what is termed a professional career.

Literary Men on the Pension List — One of the French papers
has published a list of literary men and females who receive an
annual allowance out of the secret service money at the disposal of
the government. The number of these pensioners amounts to eight
and thirty. The smallest amount of allowance is forty, and the
greatest, one hundred and twenty pounds. Amongst those who
enjoy the latter, is the widow of Abel Remusat, We observe also
the following well-known names on the list; Sonnet, forty pounds;
Charles Nodier, seventy-two; Andrieitx, eighty; Mery, sixty;
Barthelemy, sixty ; and Champollion Figeac, forty-eight pounds.

Tlie Royal Library^ on the 1st January, 1833, contained
1,985,000 volumes, including the MSS., engravings, and numis-
matical works. In the course of the present month (January, 1834)
the number of volumes will be two millions or upwards, since nearly
twenty thousand volumes have been added to the library during
the twelve intervening months.

National Education in France, — ^The bill for regulating primary
instruction in France, introduced into the Chamber of Deputies by
M. Guizot, and passed into a law on the 28th of June, provides
for the establishment of schools of the following descriptions.

Every commune is bound to provide, either by itself or conjointly
with one or more neighbouring communes, one primary school of

Foreign. 161

the lowest order. In this school, moral instruction is to be given
to the children 5 reading, writing, the principles of the French lan-
guage, ciphering, the elements of geography and history, and an
acquaintance with the authorized system of weights and measures,
are to be taught. The master of this establishment is to be fur-
nished by the commune with a suitable house, surrounded with a
(i^ld, and he is to have a fixed salary, the minimum of which is to
be 200 franes (8/. 6«. 8rf. ;) hi addition to which he is to receive,
from such of the parents of the children as can afford it, cer-
tain fees. The fees are to be exacted not by the master himself,
but by a public officer delegated by a council of commune on liis
account

Cour l.y-towns having a population exceeding 6000 souls are
bound, individually or conjointly, to maintain a school of the
second class (secondary schools), in which, in addition to the
instruction given in the first or lower order of schools, the children
are taught the elements of geometry, with its ordinary application^
particularly to linear drawing and land-measuring ; the elements of
the physical sciences and of natural history, as they are applicable
to the common uses of life ; singing, the elements of history and
geography, and foreign languages. The wishes of the parents must
always be consulted and complied with as to their children's parti-
cipation in the religious instruction given. As this second class of
schools are designed for the children of parents above meant, ther^
is no gratuitous admission, except in the case of extraordinary
talents in the poor scholar of the lower class, who receives the
advantage of a hiirher education as a reward ; but in order that the
rate of payment may be very moderate, the master is to receive a
fixed salary, of which the minimum is 400 francs (l^L 13». 4d.),
in addition to the fees. In this class of schools, as well as in the
former, the fixed salary of the master is to be paid wholly by the
parish, if possible ; or, if not, partly by the department or county ;
and the state itself is to come in aid as un dernier ressort.

The third class of schools, styled normal, are for the training
of masters, The Royal Council, in their regulations of the
19th of July last, which relate to diplomas of capacity and
boards for examining teachers, direct that the candidates for
such diplomas of the lower class shall be required to pass an exami-
nation in the following subjects, and in the rotation of subjects
hereunder designated ; namely —

{Catechism*
The Scriptures. { ^^^^r^l^Z^^l

(Printed Books.\^^;^^'
Rbadino. \ Manuscript or

I JJthographed.

f ^::^*««ry- "I, , ,.f Ordinary.
WniTiifa, \ Round. Ma le***"-*? Capitals.

{.Running hand.) ^ ^

lo2 Miscellaneous.

Methods of tkacbxmq Writino and Reading.

f Grammar. iG™™"'*'* Analyri, of
I \ phrases dictated.

Elements of the Fubnch Lanqu age. 'j Orthography.i Theory of.

I I Practice of.

/Numeration.

Elements of Arithmetic.

^^y AdditioD.

^•'- < Subtraction.

Practice I Multiplication,
o/. V Division.

Legal System of Weights and Measures, and Conversion op old measures

INTO NEW,

The Elements of Obography and History.

The candidates for diplomas of capacity of the higher class are to
be examined in the following^ subjects, according to the order of
succession here laid down ; namely, —

1. In all the subjects comprehended in the preceding enumera-
tion, which relates to pure elementary instruction ; and, in addition,
a fuller development of Moral and Religious Inalruction ; together
with Arithmetical Proportion^ and the Rules of Three, and
Partnership,

2. Elements of Geometry ; angles, perpendiculars, parallels ;
surfaces of triangles, polygons, and the circle; volumes of the
simplest bodies. Linear Design,

Usual applications of Geometry. — Mensuration, surveying,
drawing plans.

Such Elements of the Physical Sciences and Natural History,
as are applicable to the common purposes of life, including the defi-
nitions of the simplest machines.

Elements of Geography and General History, and the
Geography and History of France.

Elements of the Mechanism of the Globes,

Singing. — Theory and practice of Music and Vocalism.

Methods of Teaching. — Simultaneous and Mutual.

A statement of the details of the examination is to be drawn up
and signed by all the examiners, as well as by the candidate. The
principal town in each department is to have a distinct board of
examiners. Every individual, who shall have completed his
eighteenth year, is authorized, on producing his baptismal certifi-
cate, to present himself at the Board of Elementary Instruction for
the purpose of undergoing examination as to his capacity. The
examinations are to be public, and to be held in a hall, which is
attached to some public establishment ; and public notice of such
examinations is to be given by the rector of the academy (or local
branch of the university of France). A three years' diploma may
be given to such candidates as have not passed a successfiil exami-
nation with regard to their qualification in singing.

■ ■■ *

Oriental Languages, — The lectures annually delivered in the
Royal School for the. living Eastern languages, at Paris, are dis-

Foreign. 153

tributed as follows for the academical year 1833-1834. Arabic^
Baron Silvestre de Sacy ; Vulgar Arabic^ M. Causin de Perceval,
fils ; Persian, M. Quatremere ; Turkish^ Le Chevalier Am. Jaubert ;
Armenian, M. Le Vaillaut de Florian ; Modern Greek and Greek
Palceography, M. Hase ; Hindoustani, M. Garcin de Tassy ; and
ArchcBology, M. Raoul Rachette. Each of these courses is continued
three times a week during the season.

Corporal Punishment in Schools, — ^The Abbt^ Loison, head of an
establishment for education at Boulogne-sur-Mer, appeared before
the tribunal of this (own, under the charge of having inflicted blows
with a whip on the young Alexis, aged ten years. The President
asked the accused what was the form of the whip which he had
used. He replied that it consisted of seven thin strings, with
small knots. On the President observing, that the schoolfellows
of Alexis, who were called as witnesses, had declared that the
strings were as thick as a quill, and the knots as large as goose-
berries, the accused replied, that the witnesses, being at a consider-
able distance from him, could not see well, and that fear must
doubtless have magnified the objects to their eyes. To settle the
question, the Procureur du Roi required the whip to be produced ;
but the accused made no reply to this demand. The tribunal,
after ten minutes' deliberation, pronounced sentence, by which, on
the ground that the Abb6 Loison had struck the young Alexis
without having any right to do so, he was condemned to pay 100
francs, to undergo 20 days' imprisonment, and to pay costs,
according to article 311 of the Code Penal. — Journal des DebatSy
23d December, 1832.

The minister of Public Instruction has addressed a circular to
the prefects of the departments, requiring returns of catalogues of
all the books in the several communal libraries within their districts.
The object of this is to arrange, with the consent of the Communal
Councils, for exchanges of books, so that those which, according to
the pursuits and extent of the education of the inhabitants, are un-
interesting or useless in one commune, may be transferred to
another, where they may be serviceable. The prefects are also
required to cause an examination to be made into the several
public collections of books within their respective departments, in
order to discover any scientific or literary works fallen into ob-
scurity, but which may contain matter that may be useful and
instructive to the people at large, particularly recommending a
minute inspection of all manuscript copies of Greek and Latin
classics, pointing out those of Terence, Quintilian, Suetonius, Livy,
Cicero, Greek glossaries, and others. Manuscripts relating to the
history of France are also recommended to peculiar attention.
There are but few departments which do not possess some
volumes, or at least some unpublished documents, illustrative of
their local history, either as to the towns, families, or remarkable
persons. * But the labour,' the minister adds, * will be imperfect
if it be confined only to the public libraries, and not extended to

154 Miscellaneous.

other deposits, such as the archives of several departments and
communes which are, perhaps, still more rich in documents of this
nature. Nothing Is more desirahic than a complete investigation of
the whole of these archives. I know, indeed, that there are not
fifteen towns in France in which this investigation has been made,
even in the slightest manner. I am aware, also, that to render
these searches complete and effectual, not only some expense will
be incurred, but several years must elapse. Be this as it may, it is
nevertheless important that they should be immediately commenced,
and followed up with perseverance and diligence. — GalignanVs
Messenger,

SPAIN.

The Spanish government appear to mistrust the spirit which may be
manifested in the national universities ; at least the opening of that
of Segobia has been officially postponed, and a similar measure is
said to be in contemplation with regard to the remainder. Madrid,
9th November.

Morning Meetings^^^The Spaniards have a species of public
amusement (though it deserves a far better name), which consists
in the superior class of the male inhabitants collecting, between ten
and eleven in the forenoon, in some public promenade or open space.
In Madrid the favourite place of meeting is the Puerta del Sol ; in
Toledo, the Zocodover ; in Seville, the Piuza de Santo Domingo ;
and in Granada, the Plaza de Vivarrambla and the Zacatin. These
assemblages bear a striking resemblance to the ancient forum
and ayopa : the subjects discussed at them are not merely pri-
vate concerns, but the leading topics of the day ; and the groups
who take part in the latter, handle the matter in debate with a
degree of talent and ardour, as well as unsparing freedom, which,
however incredible it may seem, are rarely to be found under any
other sky. These morning meetings are so dearly prized by the
Spaniard, that I have heard many declare, — and they were men who
had visited the gayest capitals in Europe and were otherwise over-
partial, as J conceived, in their estimate of the superiority of foreign
countries, — that all the recreations and enjoyments which London,
Vienna, and Paris afforded, could not make amends for the loss of
the brief matin-hour which they had been accustomed to while away
at the Puerta del Sol. But these assemblages carry, intrinsically^
far greater weight with them than what appears upon the surface.
Any person capable of appreciating the character and bias of the
ever-changing crowds which collect, and disperse to collect again,
at the Puerta, needs no other key to the course which public aiairs
are hkely to take, and will find himself seldom at fault in his con«
jectures. — Huberts Sketches.

Valencia.— In the year 1831, this town, together with the lands
belonging to it, possessed a population of 118,952 souls 5 amono-st
whom, however, about 4000 individuals, consisting of the garrison

Foreign, 155

and temporary residentSf are not included. The number of inhabit-
ants within the walls of Valencia was at that time 65,036; namely,
28,802 males and 36,234 females. The number of elementary
schools for boys amounted to 22 ; in which there were 24 teachers
and 3545 pupils; and for girls to 58 ; in which there were 72 female
teachers, and 2711 pupils. The ecclesiastical part of the population
was 1553 in number; namely^ 586 lay clergy, 573 monks, and 394
nuns.

PORTUGAL.

The Church, — The numbers of the clergy, whether lay or secu-
lar, have been greatly exaggerated ; many have carried them as
high as two hundred thousand, and some as high as three hun-
dred thousand individuals; had this last calculation been well
founded, one Portuguese in every ten would be of the ecclesiastical
order. We have, however, reason to believe that confidence may
be placed in the following return, which exhibits an essentially
different state of things.

The secular clergy consists of 18,000 persons, including 41

chaplains to hospitals.
Tlie monasteries contain 5760 male persons.
And in the nunneries there are 5903 females.

These form a total of 29,704 individuals, in which number the
menial assistants, as well as the novices in nunneries, are comprised.
This portion of the population of Portugal is located in 498 con-
vents and hospitals. Excluding the assistants and novices, the
proportion, relatively to the whole number of Portuguese, will be
one in every 118 persons. If the comparison, however, be confined
to male ecclesiastics, the proportion will be one in every 63 male
persons ; and even this must affect the agriculture and general
industry of the country to a most prejudicial extent. It will be
readily conceived, too, that the people at large, observing so
many ecclesiastics rise from inferior stations to the enjoyment of a
state of comfortable indolence, must be naturally induced to bring
up their children to a monastic life in preference to preparing
them for any laborious calling. The prejudice which must result
to the substantial interests of the nation, from this perversion of
the objects for which our being was given us, is as self-evident as
it is incalculable.

SWITZERLAND.

Basle. — In consequence of the divorce which the Helvetic diet
has lately pronounced between the town of Basle and, with the ex-
ception of one or two insignificant districts, the rural part of the
canton, great anxiety is felt, as well among the townsmen as in
Switzerland generally, on the subject of the division of the pro-
perty belonging to the university of Basle, between the ' Civic* and
the ^ Champaign' cantons. The inevitable consequence of any
such division would be the ruin of the university ; and an equally
deplorable result would affect the whole of Switzerland, if it should
be decided that a similar division is to be made of the public library

156 Miscellaneous.

and scientific collections belon^inpf to the town of Basle, in its former
character of metropolis of the old canton. We trust that the ^ood
sense and patriotism of the two parlies will suggest the means of
averting a blow, which would be severely felt throughout their
native country. In the mean while, deputations from the two
cantons have pleaded their respective claims before certain commis-
sioners at Aarau, to whom the decision has been referred ; and the
result of their deliberations is anxiously looked for.

Zurich. — Professor Oken, the rector of this infant university, has
publicly denied, in his official character, the existence of the * Burs-
chensclmft,' or any other political association among the students,
and borne his testimony to their assiduous deportment. We also
learn, that there has been some increase in the number of admis-
sions during the present session ; more youths of Swiss extraction
have availed themselves of the institution, but the German students
are gradually withdrawing from it. The * Album Professoruni'
gives the following detail of faculties and professors : —

Ordo Theologonim — H. C. M. Rettig (of Giessen) ; F. Hitzig
(of Haniugen); J. Schulthess ; L. Hirzel ; and S. Hess. (5.)

Ordo Juris considtorum — F. L. Keller ; L. de Leew (of Weil-
burg) ; G. Snell (of Idstein) ; J, A. Seuffert (of Heidelberg) ;
H. Escher; and J. C. Bluutschli. (6.)

Ordo Mediconim. — J. L. Schoenlein (of Bamberg) ; C. F. de
Pommer (of Heilbrunn) ; H. Locker ; Zwingli ; J. C. Spo-
endli ; H. Demme ; J. L. Balber. (6.)

Ordo Philosop/iorum. — J. C. Orelli ; E. Bobrick (of Strasburg) ;
J. L. P. Snell ; J. J. Hottinger ; C. J. Loewig ; J. G. Baiter;
H. R. Schinz. (7.)
In all 24 Professors, besides Laur. Oken (of Offenburg), rector,
and professor in ordinary of Philosophy.

Every Man^s House his Casfle, — It was one of the primitive
privileges of the Swiss, that a man's house should be held as an
inviolable sanctuary ; and its sanctions went to so great a length
in remoter times, at least in the case of the people of Kyburg in
the canton of Zurich, that any offender in the town, who sought an
asylum from the pursuit of the law, might remain safe from moles*
tation even under the cover of the projecting roof of a neighbour's
house, so long as his offence was not accompanied by murder, or
an attempt at it. — ( Escher s History of the Burg of Kyburg.)

The Rhcetians, — The Rhaitoi, RhsBti, or Rasenes, a Celtic
people, who were driven from the plain country by Teutonic
hordes, and took up their abode among the Alps, were probably
one of the most ancient communities in Gaul. The one name was
derived from Resina, a town still existing in the Tyrol, and the
other from the aboriginal Rhaezun, (Rheetium), in the Grisons.
Strangers, in former times, were accustomed to call them jfwr-

Foreign. 157

rhenoiy or Tur-Rhenes, implying people of the Upper Rhine, or
Rhenish mountains ; for Tur, or Tur^ whence Taurus, signified a
mountain : in the same way as the whole of the tribes in the Alps
were called Taurisci, Tusci, orTusici ; and hence another of their
towns was denominated Tuscanum, from its original name of Thu-
sis, now-a-days Tusoun, on the Rhine.

There can be little doubt that the Latins (Latini) were the primi-
tive tribe among the Turrhenes ; from this tribe one of the largest
of their valleys took the name of Latium or Latina, which has
been corrupted into Giadinna among the Italians, and Engadtn
among the Germans. Their aboriginal tongiie has, on the contrary,
retained the name of * Ladin' to the present hour. The ancient
Rhselians, being pressed sore by the inroads of their Celtic (Teutonic ?)
invaders, descended into the warmer regions of Italy, and wandered
as far as the banks of the Tiber, where, in conjunction with some
Pelasgic and Greek settlers, they became one of the leading people
in Italy, and retained not only their old name of Tur-rhenes, simul-
taneously with the more modern ones of Tusci and Latini, but their
native language and manners. They built Alba, and then Rome,
on the site of a hill on the Albula, subsequently called the Tiber,
which a sacred oak had, in far earlier times, rendered popular by
the name of * Vaticanus.* Niebuhr has shown the groundlessness
of Livy's assertion, that certain tribes, who were expelled by the
Celts from the lands about the Po, became, under their leader
Rhsetus, the first founders of the Rhaelian name and people. And
there is not a single name to be found, in the whole extent of
Rhaetia, the parentage of which can be traced to Upper Italy. On
the other hand, the names of the mountain villages of the Engadin
occur in a most remarkable manner, and particularly in the in-
stances of districts and water-courses, even south of the Tiber itself.
We need but recal such names as Roma, Remuria, Alba, Lavi-
nium, Laurentum, Ardea, Valerii, Latium, Albula, Falisci, Medul-
lium, Cures, Psestum, Samnium, Sabini, Sinuessa, Umbria, and
others; and then remark that, prominent and hallowed as they
are, they have sunk into desuetude, even under the very sky where
the language of Rome yet survives ; whilst among our mountain
regions, though so long subjected to the German yoke, though the
native race has commixed with Aleman and Goth, and though daily
parting with the use of the Latin tongue, there is not a stripling
but is familiar with the names of Romein, Remus, Albannas, Lavin,
Lavriin, Ardez, Valere, Ladin and Giadinna, Albula, Falise (or
Flasch), Madullein, Curia (orCuera), Peist, Samnaum, Savien and
Tshapina, Umbrien, and Mount Umbrail, as well as others. Every
nation which adopted the laws and language of the masters of the
world, called them * Roman ;* but the native of the Engadin fetter
with pride to his* Ladin,' as if in proof that his name is of more
ancient date than the ' seven hills,* and in contempt of the more
modern ' Roman,* which falls on his ear like a re-echoing fetter.
The very name of Jto/y, which has been so fiercely disputed, and is
derived by some from vitalos (or vitulus), is, in all probability, of

158 JUiscellaneous,

northern descent ; for, in old German, Iddalja signiftes a declin-
ing, or moving down from one's higher home (descensus montis.)

The Rhietiau, in common with his brother Gaul, called bis gods
Ases, or Area (the lofty) ; or else Lars, Loses, and Lares, signifying
masters ; whence the Scotch, laird, and the English, lord. His
monarch was, therefore, called Lars, or, like all Celtic chieftains,
ReXy reges ; in Scotch, Rigk, and in German, Reiks, Recke, and Rix,
He saluted the principal of his deities with the name of Diits, Divus^
Deus, or Dius- Pater ; his goddess of earth was called Vesta ^ the
Grecian Hestia, and the German Hertha ; and his god of war,
Arts, or Mars, Add to this, that the old Gallic and German word
Her, the Heros and Here of the Greek, was parent to the Hhtetian's
Herus and Hera, a general title of honour. Lucumo was also a
name which he gave to royalty, as well as to one of his mountains.
" — (Dr. Henne's Grisons.J

BELGIUM.

In the year 1830, this kingdom contained 4046 elementary schools,
which were attended by 293,000 children ; at the close of last year
the number of schools had increased to 5504^ and of children
attending them, to 368,156.

The Universities. — We hear that the University of Liege has at
no former period entered so many students as during the present
winter session. The whole of the classes are said to be crowded.
But at Louvain the students vehemently oppose the new statutes,
which are represented as being more than commonly severe, and
they have treated many of the Professors to what the French call
' charivaris ;* anglic^, * marrow-bones and cleavers.'

HOLLAND.

The state of the Dutch universities, during the years 1830 and
1831, was as follows : In 1830 the number of students matricu-
lated &tLeydenwa& 684 ; at Utrecht, 476; and at Groeningen,
284; in all 1444. In 1831 the number matriculated at Leyden
was 791, Utrecht 519, and Groeningen 314; which give a total of
1624. These returns, establish the fact, that the state of political
affairs in Holland during both years, occasioned no interruption to
academical pursuits.

GERMANY.

Hamburg Observatory. — Six patriotic individuals in this town
have raised a fund for the purpose of purchasing the valuable col-
lection of astronomical instrnments, which were made for the
Observatory, and left behind him by Repsold ; among them is
an admirable transit-glass of five feet diameter. They have also
enhanced their benefaction not only by providing means of payment
for a meridian circle and a variety of other instruments, which
are in course of construction by the two able sons of the de-
ceased, but by assigning a fund sufficient to defray the annual

Foreign. 169

expense of preserving the instruments and maintaining the Obser-
vatory. The whole capital which they have raised amounts to
upwards of 2000/. ; and we should be doing injustice to the noble
example which they have set, were we to leave their names unre-
corded. They are Mr, Sillem, the burgomaster of Hamburg;
Messrs. Benecke, Gossler, and Schroeder, three of its senators ;
Mr. Peterson, the senior elder ; and Mr. Hermann Roosen.

Anatomical School^ 8fc. — Dr. Fricke, of Hamburg, opened the
Anatomical School, which he has established in that city, on the
9th of October last. It is already attended by 100 pupils, to whom
the founder has generously afforded the opportunity of pursuing a
two years* course of anatomical study, free of all expense. The
Professors of the Hamburg Gymnasium have opened courses of
public lectures on Philology, Medicine, Natural History. Theo-
logy, Ecclesiastical and General History, Mathematics, Medicine,
Statistics, and Geography.

Saxony.— The general census, which was completed up to the
Ist of July last^ affords the following classification of the population
of this kingdom, in a religious point of view; —

Individuals of the Lutheran persuasion, in the here-
ditary dominions of the Crown of Saxony . 1,321,458
Ditto in Upper Lusatia .... 206,734

Total of Ltttherans . 1 ,528,192
Roman Catholics; viz. in the hereditary domi-
nions (inclusive of 4045 in the city of Dresden) 9,892

In Upper Lusatia . ' 17,771

27,663

Members of the Reformed Church .... 1^390

Ditto of the Greek Church (in all the hereditary do-
minions) ....... 39

Ditto of the Jewish persuasion (of whom 3 only in

Upper Lusatia ...••• 874

Total population of the kingdom of Saxony 1,558,158

The number of inhabitants, therefore, who profess the^ Roman
Catholic religion, which is that of the sovereign, scarcely exceeds
1 in 57 persons.

GuTTENBERO. — A sum of ubout 9000 guldens (800/ ) has been
subscribed towards erecting the long-projected monument at May-
ence, in memory of the immortal inventor of the art of printing.
Thorwaldsen, the Dane, and the first sculptor of the continental
school, has undertaken to execute the work ; and observes, in a
letter expressive of his readiness to comply with the wishes of the
Mayence committee in this respect, ** The statue and basso-relievos
will have my name attached to them ; and it will be a subject of

160 Miscellaneotis*

pride to me to contribute, by my labours, in perpetuating*; ne
memory of so true a benefactor of mankind/' Rome, 4th Octo-
ber, 1833.

Leipzig. — Professor Klotz and Dr. Westermann have under-
taken to edit a * Thesaurus Antiquiiatis Grcecce et Romante ad
litteramm ordinem conditus / but, with the exception of some few
divisions and articles, it is not their intention to take any part in
the work beyond that of simple editors ; the great bulk of its com-
position will be assifrned to the most eminent scholars in each
department. Amongst them the names of Hermann, Eichstadt,
Jacobs, Botiiger, the Dindorfs, Schumann, Osann, Matthiee, Jahn,
Ranke; A. G. Becker, Nobbe, Kiesslinar, and Weichert, are already
announced as those of the German litterati who have engaged to
undertake certain portions of the work. It will embrace the follow-
ing departments : Literary History, Antiquities, (including Archaeo-
logy,) Mythology, Geography, and the History of Civilization ;
but Political History will be excluded.

The Catalogue of the book-fair, held in this town at Michaelmas
last, enumerates 2972 new publications, either completed or in the
press, brought forward by 439 publishers, ten of whom alone are
the proprietors of more than one-half of these publications.

In the year 1826, the Saxon government enabled Professor Sey-
ffarth to proceed to Holland, Italy, England, and France, on a
tour of investigation into Egyptian antiquities. Whilst at Turin,
Seyffarth discovered a sixth Egyptian zodiac on papyrus, and here
found a key to the astronomical inscriptions designed by the ancient
Egyptians. The two thousand relics which the Europeans have
gleaned from the land of Pharaoh, and the records contained in
which embrace the immense interval between Abraham and Con-
stantine the Great, will now lend a powerful aid towards extending
and correcting our knowledge of ancient history, chronology, &c.
Seyffarth states it to be the positive result of his application of this
new light, that all history is 400 years older than has been hitherto
admitted or conjectured. The departure of the children of Israel is,
consistently with Syncellus and Eusebius, to be dated in the year
1908 B. C, and the war of Troy terminated 15l55 B. C. The
beginning of history, after the deluge, opens with the year 3446
B.C.: whilst the Chinese annals assign the year 3461 to it.
The celebrated zodiac of Denderah, which has been conjectured to
be from times antecedent to the deluge, is set down by Seyffarth
as ranking among the latest of Egyptian remains. It coincides
with the nativity of Nero, Anno Si B. C. He has further ascertained
that the Table of Isis, which was found at Rome, contains the
constellation of the Emperors Trajan and Nerva, and that it dates
from the year of our Lord 98.

Munich. — We observe, according to the prospectus issued by
the university authorities for the present term, that 160 courses of
lectures will be delivered by 75 professors and lecturers. The ad-

Foreign. 161

missions to matriculation have been subjected to very strict rules.
Every new student is required to exhibit not only testimonials of
his classicaV attainments, but ample proof that his previous conduct
has always been irreproachable, and that he is not liable even to the
suspicion of havings taken part in any society which does not enjoy
legal sanction, or has political objects in view ; particularly the
associations known by the name of ' Germania,' ' Teutonia/ and
* Markomania.' On the 14th of November, 1269 students had
been registered. Notwithstanding the previous opening of the
university of Zurich, a much greater number of youths firom Swit-
zerland have entered than last year.

GiEssEN. — The total number of students who have attended the
several courses during the summer session of the present year has
been but 359 ; of whom 89 entered to Theology, 101 to Jurispru-
dence, 67 to Medicine, 47 to Rural and Civil Economy, 41 to Forest
Economy, and 5 to Philosophy and Philology.

GoTTiNOEN. — The late summer half-year's term brought 843
students to this university ; namely, 504 natives of Hanovery
and 339 young men from other parts. Their matriculations ranged
as follows :-— Theology 215, Law 308, Medicine 206, and Philo-
sophy 114. At the close of November last, the number. of students
entered for the winter half year*s session was 833 ; and the acade-
mical establishment consisted of 48 professors, 41 private lecturers,
and 12 teachers of modern languages, music, riding, &c. The
number of separate courses of lectures is 172.

PRUSSIA.

Silesia. — At the close of the year 1831, the population of this pro-
vince amounted to 2,464,414 souls ; its national schools were
3540 in number, and they were attended by 384,649 children ;
which gives an average of nearly 1 in every 7 inhabitants. The
number of students attending the university courses at Breslau is,
at this moment, 1011; and the number of distinct courses of lec-
tures, which are now delivering there, is 184. The GymnasiUf or
high schools of Silesia, amount to twenty, including the equestrian
academy at Liegnitz. At the close of 183], there were 4927 pu-
pils in them ; and at the close of last year, 4882 ; which latter gives,
exclusively of the Liegnitz academy, an average of 257 pupils to
each. The Pro-Gymnasium in Sagan, in w.hich there are not
more than 20 scholars, is not included in the number. None of
them are so numerously attended as the Catholic Gymnasium at
Breslau, where there were 515 boys at Christmas last (1832) : the
lowest in number of pupils was the Protestant Gymnasium at Lau-
ban, which had not more than 104 pupils at the same period.

The Rhenish Provinces. — According to a recent statistical survey
of the state of the scholastic institutions in these provinces, whose
population amounted, iu the year 1832, to 2,239,201 souls, they

Oct., 1833— Jan., 1834. M

162 Miscellaneous.

contain 18 Gymnasia, conducted by 212 masters, and attended by
8218 scholars; 54 civic schools, possessing 169 masters and 2905
pupils ; and 8246 national or elementary schools, under the ma-
nagement of 3747 teachers, and attended by 347.186 boys and
girls. The total number of schools In the Rhenish provinces is,
therefore, 8318; and for 353,309 pupils, there are 4128 teachers:
of the former 187,762 are of the male, and 165,547 of the female
sex. The circles and distinct populations of these provinces, with
their schools and pupils, are as under : —

Inhabitants. Schools. Pupils.
Aix la Chapelle, or Aachen 352,972 484 49,059
Cologne . . . 392,315 500 60,976
Dusseldorf . . 700,028 721 99,967
Treves . . . 376,553 722 66,913
Coblenz . . . 417,333 891 76,394

2,239,201 3318 353,309

PosEN. — Since Prussia has been in possession of this principality,
13 out of 25 monasteries have been suppressed. The endowed pro-
perty still belonging to them is valued at 263,381 dollars (about
36,200?.,) and they receive a yearly grant from the state of about
1800Z. more. The nunneries remaining are 5 in number, and con-
tain 43 members ; their endowed property is valued at about 8430Z.,
and the annual grant made by the state for their support is about
1170/. Thirty-eight out of every 100 inhabitants in the province of
Posen speak the German language; and of its 446 ecclesiastics, 171
are sufficient masters of it to pre»ch and perform divine service in
that tongue. The number of teachers employed in the public
schools is 793, and 666 of them are able to instruct their pupils in
German. There are 58 Jewish schools in the province, and 134
teachers attached to them ; the number of Jewish children capable
of receiving instruction is 5804, and of these 451 receive their
education in Christian seminaries.

AUSTRIA.

Vniversity of Vienna. — The whole of the professors are salaried by
the government ; they are not permitted to demand or receive any
fees on their own account, or to give private lectures or lessons.
The theological, surgical, and veterinary courses are delivered gra-
tuitously; but the student has to pay a fee of 18 florins (about
1/. Il5. 6d,) for attendance on the lectures in Philosophy, and of
30 florins (about 21 125. 6d,) for attending those in Medicine and
Jurisprudence. The whole amount of the monies paid for tuition
during the session is expended in stipends to indigent students, and
divided amongst them, without reference to their religious creeds,
in allowances varying from 50 to 150 florins (4Z. 10». to 13/. 10*.)
All the courses are delivered in the German language, with the

Foreign. 168

exception of some few in the departments of Theology afad Physic.
The professors are required to comprise the whole range of the
science of which they treat in their course, in order that they may
bring it under review, so far as it may be practicable, in all its
parts. None of them are allowed to select, and confine themselves
to, isolated branches of a science, excepting in the case of extra
courses of lectures : for which, however, they are prohibited from
demanding any fee.

Public and Private. Libraries. — The Hof-biblioiheky Or imperial
library, contains 300,000 volumes of printed books, 1300 MSS.,
and 8000 volumes of tracts, &c. Its endowments produce about
1700/. per annum, which is just sufficient to meet the expense of
purchasing and binding new publications. The UniversUy Library
consists of 80,000 volumes, and its income is about 2800Z. a year.
The library belonging to the Theresianum contains 30,000 volumes
of printed books, 120 MSS., and between 1460 and 1500 volumes
of tracts, &c. At the head of the private libraries stands that of
the emperor, consisting of upwards of 40,000 volumes of select
works, principally in Natural History, but particularly in Botany.
The Archduke Charles' library contains 20,000 volumes, the greater
part of which relate to History, the Art of War, Natural His-
tory, and the Fine Arts; that of Prince John of Lichtenstein
amounts to 40,000 volumes; and that of Prince Metternich to
20,0(10, which chiefly consist of bibliographical rarities, and works
in History and Philology.

Society for Concerts, Vienna. — This is an association of ama-
teurs, who give four public concerts, independently of the 60
musical soirees which are held in their own rooms during the
winter season. Their scientific collection amounts to 800 pieces in
•full score ; and their library contains 1240 works on the theory of
music, as well as a collection of portraits of the most eminent com-
))Osers ; the latter consisting of 60 paintings in oil, and 600 engrav-
ings. A special committee is at this moment engagedin compiling
the biographies of every composer of any celebrity : above 100 of
them are completed. The society likewise possesses 60 autographs
of great rarity, and a coUectfon of 54 old instruments, beginning
with the fifteenth century. They have been procured from various
foreign countries, particularly Turkey.

HUNGARY.

A unique village. — ^There is a village in Hungary entirely inhabited
hy nobles. If I mistake not, it is called Nemeswitt ; the first two
syllables forming a word which signifies * noble.' The origin of
the name is thus accounted for — ^A Magyar-kiraly^ or one of the
Hungarian monarchs, chancing to halt at this village, was in such
raptures with the savonriness of a cheese set before him, that he
ennobled every soul in it, with full descent of their nobility to the
issue of their loins, for ever !

164 MUcelUnieousn

General Education. — Little progress has been made in educatini^
the lower orders ; and small pains are taken to make them wiser
than what is absolutely necessary to enable them to earn a scanty
livelihood. Men are not forbidden, as in the Sardinian states, to
send their children to school; but as no one interests himself
about their education, they are consequently kept at home. The
superior description of seminaries, gymnasia, and universities, are
mostly under the direction of the Roman Catholic priesthood ; and
the only branches of science which are taught with any degree of
perfection in them are medicine and law.*-^. Ellrich*8 Notes.

RUSSIA.

The Press, — During the year 1831, the number of publications
which issued from the Russian press was 724 ; they consisted of
600 original works and 124 translations. Amongst them were 97
German, 40 Polish, 8 Hebrew, and 479 Russian works. At the
close of the same year, the public library at St. Petersburgh con-K
tained 273,776 volumes.

Value of Property. — It is not agreeable to Russian law that the
value of lands should be determined by the extent or quality of
their surface, but by the number of hands which are upon it: these
hands being riveted to the soil, or, in plainer language, being
bound to work for the proprietor a certain number of days in the
week. The Russian or Lithuanian landholder, instead of calling
himself owner of an estate of so many acres, as we should do, talks
of the number of souls or peasants ; in which expression he in-
cludes the males only. An accurate enumeration of them is made
every twenty-five years. In some few quarters, however, it is
become the custom with men of feeUng to break through the tech-
nicality of legal barbarism, and to discuss the value of a property
not by its number of soiUs^ but of houses; the latter word implying
a whole family of serfs. Their price is estimated by the goodness
of the soil and the locality of the land. On the average, however,
a soul is valued at between fifty and one hundred ducats (from
20Z. to 40/. sterling) ; an estate, therefore, which contains 100 souls,
is worth from 2000/. to 4000/. The taxes vary according to the
number of peasants ; and the quota of recruits which the landed pro-
prietor is expected to supply is determined by each hundred of souls,
according to the proportion laid down in the imperial ukase.

The Gymnasia, — ^A circular from the Minister of National Instruc-
tion, which was addressed to the curators of tlie Russian universi-
ties in the beginning of November last, states, that equestrian
stipends will be granted to the gymnasia for the purpose of pro-
viding a higher class of education for the young nobility, and that
those seminaries are hereafter to enjoy the privilege of preparing
youth for direct removal to the university. These stipends are to
supersede the expense of private instruction.

Foreign, 165

Kasan. — Independently of the buildings at present appropriated to
the purposes of this university, the preparations for adding a botanical
garden, an anatomical theatre, and an observatory to its scientific
means, are in active progress. A sum of sixty thousand roubles has
been assigned for the erection of the orangery alone, and the
botanical garden at St. Petersburgh has liberally presented the
university with fifleen thousand exotics, towards laying the founda-
tion of its collections in the vegetable kingdom. It is indebted to
the indefatigable exertions of Prince Mussin Pushkin, its curator,
for these valuable acquisitions.

TiFLis. — A society has been formed here for the encouragement of
agriculture, trade, and national industry: the most distinguished
individuals in the district are at its head, and a yearly sum of eight
hundred pounds is set aside for its support.

Russia in the Twelfth Century, — So far as it has yet proceeded,
there is no history of this empire, which has been written in a spirit
of deeper research into facts and with a juster appreciation of the
causes which have contributed to the growth of Russia, its character,
and institutions, than that of Professor Strahl of Bonn. We are not
aware that he is yet advanced beyond the publication of his first
volume, which brings the history down to the year 1224. An elaborate
introduction precedes the purely historical matter, in which he treats
of Russia and its inhabitants in the ages antecedent to the foundation
of the state itself, and of the physical conformation of its dominions
at the present day; — of the Slavonians, their origin, character, reli-
gion, mode of life, constitution, &c., and of the ethnographic condition
of Russia from the sixth to the thirteenth century. The following
extract will afford some idea of the manner in which the writer
handles one branch at least of his subject. It refers to the manners
and customs of the Russians during the period between the years
1015 and 1224 ;—

' Gloomy superstition and prejudice enchained the minds of
men, and, in particular, of the lower orders. Then, as even now,
indeed, the sight of a burial, no less than that of monks and
ecclesiastics, was dreaded as ominous of calamity ; apprehension of
the evil eye^ which prevails to this day in Russia, even amongst some
of the highest classes, was common to the whole nation. It was
the practice, too, to leave the dying man to his fate, from dread of
the misfortunes which the sight of a dead body was supposed to
engender ; and faith in soothsayers and enchanters had taken deep
root in the minds both of the highest and lowest of the people.
Hence the numbers that listened with fear and trembling to the sooth-
sayer, who announced to the inhabitants of Kiew in 1071, that the
Dnieper would shortly flow backwards — that towns and countries
would change their sites — that Russia would be removed to Greece,
and the latter take the place of the former. At this time, several
innocent women fell a sacrifice to the delusion, propagated by two
impostors in the province of Rostow, when it was labouring under
a famine ; they had made the credulous people believe that women

166 Miscellaneous,

were the cause of the scarcity, by rendering their bodies veceptaclea
for grain and food. The deluded multitudes, driven to despair, laid
violent hands on those who were nearest and dearest to them;
mothers, wives, and sisters became so many objects of mistrust and
execration ; and some of them being brought before the pretended
enchanters, these wretches pretended to cut their shoulders open,
and introducing grain under their sleeves, let it fall to the ground ;
upon which the surrounding multitude killed the supposed offenders
on the spot, and mangled their bodies in the most horrible and dis*
gusting manner." S**

DoRPAT.— The number of students who were studying at this
university in September last was 577 ; they consisted of 219
Livonians, 117 Courlanders, 85 Esthonians, 141 natives of other
parts of Russia, and 15 foreigners. Seventy-one of these students
were educating at the expense of the government.

Helsingfors.-— It is stated, in the university calendar for the
autumnal session, that the students at present attending the courses
of lectures amount to 389.

Riga, 20th November. — A society is forming here for the pur-
pose of discussing and investigating subjects connected with the
history and antiquities of the Baltic provinces, as well as for
collecting and preserving whatever may serve to illustrate the
annals and past state of the arts in Courland, Livonia, and £s-
thonia..

POLAND.

The Emperor of Russia has directed the Lyceum of Volhynia to
be removed from Kremonecz to Kief; the latter being closer to the
centre of the Russian dominions. It will be erected into a university
under the special patronage of St. Vladimir; but will not, in the first
instance, contain more than two Faculties ; — those of Philosophy
and'Law^

ITALY.

The united kingdom of Lomhardy and Venice contains 2233
parishes, and 2336 elementary schools for boys, and 1199 for girls.
The number of male pupils in 1832 was 112,127; and of female
54,640. The population of this kingdom in the same year being
4,406,500, the proportion between the children thus receiving in-
struction, and the general mass of the community, was nearly 1 in
every 27 persons. The male teachers in those schools were at that
time 2269, and the female 1215 ; which gives an average of about
1 to every 47 children.

Healing Art in the Sixteenth Century. — The renowned George
pf Frundsberg was taken ill in Italy, whilst heading the Imperialists,
and afterwards transported to Mindelheim, where he died on the
20th of October, 1528, railing bitterly against the ingratitude of
princes. At the commencement of his sickness, he was attended

. Foreign, J67

by Carpo of Ferrara, ai celebrated physician of that day ; and the
treatment which he underwent affords some insight into the state of
the medical art at that period. ' Carpo,' we are told, * dissected a
human pericranium in order to discover the nature of FrundsKerg's
malady, burnt the old warrior's temples with molten gold, and
had him anointed every day with oils and gold water ; he also or-
dered him a bath of oil of olive, in which a fox had been stewed*
But neither the molten gold, nor the oils, nor the gold water, nor
the oil of olive, nor even the fox, availed to rescue the octogenarian
soldier from the jaws of death/

Venice — The Armenian Monastery of St Lazarus, — (From a
private letter.) * This celebrated establishment has been so often
described by former travellers, that I will not weary you by repeat-
ing their reports ; but I know that some account of its present
state will prove acceptable to you. It is at this moment the resi-
dence of sixty brethren and others ; amongst whom are six-and-
twenty boys, whose education is conducted by the monks. Six of
them arrived a few days ago from Constantinople, and have not,
therefore, as yet laid aside the costume which is worn by the young
Armenians in that capital ; the remainder are dressed in black,
like the monks themselves. Many of the boys are qualifying for
the priesthood ; others are going through a course of general in-r
struction ; but it is intended to establish a branch school for the
latter in Padua. The printing-house attached to this monastery,
which has already published several Armenian and Italian works
of importance, is in full activity ; it is placed in a pleasant, well
lighted spot, where three Stanhope presses, manufactured in Milan
and Padua, are constantly in requisition. They are employed at
present on the ' Armenian-Italian* portion of the great dictionary,
edited by Tshiatshink, who published the Italian portion of the
work some years ago. The whole will extend to two quarto
volumes ; and the seventy-fifth sheet is already completed. The
press is, at the same time, at work upon Elias Tomugian's Arme*
nian version of Plutarch's Lives, which will be comprised in six
octavo volumes: three of them are already published. They are
very handsomely printed, and on excellent paper. The work next
in contemplation is the ' Antichita d* Arm^ia,' from the MS. of
the late L. Ingigi ; he left this important woi-k in a perfectly com-
plete state, and it will form three quarto volumes. It embracefii'
hot only the ancient and modern history of Armenia, but its gene-'
ral statistics, &c., and will fill up a great vacuum, in Eastern litera-
ture. The library of the monastery has recently made two acquisi-
tions of some value — a Birmese MS. brought from Rangon by an
Armenian missionary, which is beautifully illuminated, and is com-
posed of twelve strips of palm-leaves; and a mummy, given to an
Armenian resident by the prime minis'ter of the Pasha of Egypt,
which is remarkable from the lower side of the lid in which it lies
being covered with hieroglyphics — a circumstance of rare occurrence.'

The Venetian Provinces. -^Mnch attention is bestowed by the

168 Miscellaneous.

Austrian government on the education of the labouring classes; and
the number of national schools has been augmented to 1402, in
which 62,000 children attend. There yet remain, however, nearly
400 districts or villages, which are altogether destitute of any pro<-
visiun for the education of poor children ; and the returns made to
government make it appear that only one child, out of every four in
these provinces, receives public instruction. The education of the
middling and higher classes is carried on in 24 Gymnasia, under
the care of 164 professors and masters : they are attended by about
5000 pupils. The student passes out of these schools into the
Lycea, in which he follows what is termed the * Philosophical
course' for two years ; this course embraces Divinity, Philosophy,
History, the Classics, German, and Drawing. The Lycea are four
in number, and are established in Venice, Verona, Vicenza, and
Udina ; they are maintained at the public expense, and contain
altogether about 900 students. From these seminaries, such as
are destined for learned professions remove to the university of
Padua, where there are four faculties : Theology, Jurisprudence,
Medicine, and Philosophy. The professional body consists of 61
members, and the number of students averages about 1000. Inde-
pendently of these scholastic institutions, there are 11 seminaries
attached to the several dioceses of the Venetian provinces ; their
immediate object is the education of young men who are intended
for the church ; and there are likewise 16 religious establishments,
where young females are educated. With reference to the > general
state of morals in this quarter of the globe, a pretty accurate esti-
mate maybe formed from the official reports of crimes and offences;
and these show that a very essential improvement has taken place
during the last fourteen years; for, in 1818, the proportion of
prisoners was 1 in every 515 inhabitants ; whereas, at the present
moment, it appears not to exceed I in every 813. It should, how-
ever, in justice, be noticed, that the state of demoralization which
characterized the former year, is in a great measure to be ascribed
to the high prices of provisions in the two preceding years ; and
hence, also, the glender benefit which was at first found to arise
firom the termination of a state of war. — Quardo,

Rome, October 2nd. — Suspension of the Universities, — • The
rescript, which his Holiness has just promulgated on the subject of
the universities in the papal states, has created much fermen
among all classes in this capital, and will rouse a still more angry^
feeling at Bologna. However it may be desired to gloss over the
fact, this document effectually closes the papal universities ; before
its appearance they were only suspended provisionally. It should
be recollected that there are, in truth, but two institutions of this
description in the Roman states — those of Rome and Bologna.
Now, as the new regulations enact that none shall be permitted to
frequent the universities, excepting such as are natives of the two
legations or towns, the majority of his Holiness' lieges are virtually
denied the privilege. But that part of the rescript which lays down
that every individual who is desirous of entering either university,

Foreign. 169

must prove hSmself to be possessed of a monthly income of twelv^e
scudi (about 40«.), at the least, has excited warmer comment thnn
any other. How is it possible that a youth who is dependent solely
upon his own exertions, and particularly youn^ men of talent, the
sons of provincial parents with scanty means, should be provided
with such an income as this ? The effect of the regulation is, there*
fore, to shut out every youth, whatever his endowments or legiti-
mate ambition, to whom fortune has been a stepmother, from the
road to science and advancement. And it will have another most
pernicious effect: the study of Physic being confined to Rome and
Bologna, the number of individuals who will be enabled to pursue
it, must be hereafler inadequate to supply the wants of (he commu-
nity.' — * This said rescript suppresses the chairs of Elementary Phi-
losophy, or, in other words, exiles Logic, Metaphysics, Ethics, and
the elements of Algebra and Geometry, from the halls of the Roman
universities ; and it directs, that such as are desirous of studying these
subjects should study them in their native province under masters who
have been licensed by the Congregation of Studies. With respect
to the courses in canon, civil, and criminal law, they will continue
to be delivered at those universities ; but no student will be ad-
mitted to them unless he is a native of the town or province in
which the university is situated. All other persons must be con-
tent to obtain what light they can in the town or province which
they inhabit'

Milan, September 12th, 1833. — Elementary instruction in Lom-
bardy has now reached that degree of diffusion and perfection which
leaves very little more to be wished for. The following numerical
tables will serve to prove it. The first presents the state of elemen-
tary schools for boys and girls, actually established in the various
provinces and communities of Lombardy.

Schools

Provinces. Communities.

for Boys.

for Girls.

Total.

Bergamo • 359

487

452

939

Brescia . 235

346

249

595

Como . 528

489

569

Cremona . 180

146

182

Lodi & Crema 197

135

194

Mantova . 74

156

253

Milan . 388

290

379

Pavia . 193

131

205

Sondrio . 79

156

219

2233 2336 1199 3535

Of these 3535 schools, only 71 are of a superior order; namely,
admitting of 3 or 4 classes ; all the others are quite elementary,
consisting only of 2 classes. Beside these public schools, elemen-
tary instruction is given in 36 public boarding-schools, 20 of which
re for boys, and 16 for girls; in 77 private houses for education,
of wh ich are for boys, and 47 for girls ; in 208 gratuitous

170 Miscellaneous.

Sunday schools, diiefly destined for boys employed as appreti*
tices durinn^the week ; and in 623 private schools, of which 211 are
for boys, and 412 for g^irls. The total number of schools, and of
public as well as private institutions for education, affording^ the
means of obtainin^r elementary instruction, amount to 4479. The
number of masters and mistresses belon[rin^ to the public schools,
and that of the children respectively attending, are shown in the fol-
lowing table.

Provinces.

Masters.

Boys.

Mistresses.

Girls.

Bergamo

577

20,898

496

18.668

Brescia

427

17,381

267

11,797

Como .

494

20.636

2,959

Cremona

176

6,983

2,196

[T.odi&Cremal62

7,239

3.411

Mantova

184

8,173

102

3.938

Milan .

317

19,165

6.125

Pavia .

149

6,954

3,271

Sondrlo

183

4,678

2,275

2669 112,127 1215 54,640

This gives a total of 166,767 children of both sexes. There were
besides 4566 more attending the gratuitous Sunday Schools; 702
boys, and 732 girls, educated in other public institutions ; 721 hoys,
and 1641 girls receiving instruction \tt private houses for education;
and 5119 boys and 8631 girls attending private elementary schools.
So that, for the year 1832, we have in Lombardy the immense
number of 188,879 children from six to twelve years of age,
receiving elementary instruction.

Comparing these statistical tables with those for the year 1822,
we obtain this cheering result : that, during the last ten years, the
number of public schools has increased by one-third ; whilst the
number of children visiting these schools has augmented by more
than two-fifths. These favourable results are, in a great measure,
owing to the laudable zeal exhibited by all the public authorities for
the good direction of elementary instruction. And this encourage-
ment has been admirably seconded by the local magistrates, and
by philanthropic individuals, who have contributed by their pecu-
niary means and by their personal exertions to the diffusion of
institutions so conducive to the civilization of the people. In the
various villages of Lombardy we count no less than 473 charitable
persons, who have gratuitously lent their houses, or other buildings
belonging to them, for the piirpose of establishing in them public
elementary schools : 208 public masters offered to instruct gratui-
tously, in Sunday schools, those children who are not at liberty
during the week. In various cities, evening schools have been
opened during the winter season, designed to give instruction, free
of expense, to boys belonging to shops, or to young workmen.
Besides which, various masters of superior schools have volunteered
to devote their leisure hours to the instruclon of mechanics.

At Cremona, the zealous director of that school. Professor

Foreign, 171

Ferrante Aporii, has continued to forward the prosperity of the
charity schools founded by him, namely, that for the deaf and dumb,
and the infant school instituted by him in the year 1831. In thia
the children of the poor, from three to six years of age, are daily
admitted from eight o'clock in the morning until evening ; and here
they are likewise fed at the expense of private individuals, aided by a
sum contributed by the public institution for the relief of the poor.
The immense utility of such infant asylums will soon be felt in
other cities of Lombardy, where some generous imitators of Aporti
are about to spread the blessing of infant education*.

At Lodi, the excellent Mrs. Cosway, on the 7th of June,
1833, rendered perpetual, by means of a legal act, the foundation
of the House of Education, which she has for many years so ably
directed ; and to this purpose she has made a full donation of the
buildings and the necessary furniture, together with a considerable
annual revenue. This house will take the name of * English Ladies*
Institution ;' and the municipal corporation of Lodi, in order to
show to the founder a sense of their gratitude for her noble
determination, have given to her some grounds adjacent to the
garden of the school, which will adorn it with a hill planted with
fruit-trees, from which a beautiful prospect is enjoyed. Supported
by the zeal of so many benevolent persons, and by funds derived
from so many public and private sources, elementary instruction
may be said to have attained in Lombardy to that high object,
to which were directed the wise provisions of those who gifted these
provinces with such useful institutions. — (Drawn from Official
B&ports,)

GREECE,

An Election, — (Extract from a private letter.) — * Before I quitted
Athens, I had the opportunity of witnessing the ceremony of apopu^
lar assembly, called together for the purpose of electing new Demo-
gerontes. About three hundred Greeks met on a grassplot, in
front of a church in the middle of the town ; what are called the
Archons or Plutocrats, who came into consequence during the days
of Turkish sway, placed themselves and tlieir eagle»eyes in the
centre of the meeting. After discussing the question, whether the
naturalized citizens, or owners of lands and houses who have
migrated to this spot from Europe, and other parts of Greece, should
be admitted to vote, and deciding it in the negative, they proceeded
to debate upon the subject of allowing such citizens, and any other
strangers to be present on the occasion : and this was determined in
the affirmative. A general cry of "Xa^ov, x^ftov !" next warned
the multitude to lay themselves down on the ground, in order that
the successive speakers should be distinctly seen and heard from the
post which was assigned to them in the centre of the assembly.
One of the citizens then recited an oath, to which every one qualified
to vote made solemn response ; it was to the effect, that they repu-

* We underbtand that similar asylums have been establibhed at Leghorn and
Pisa undex the superintendence of a committee of ladies.

172 Miscellaneous.

diated the influence of all ties of kindred, bribery, and every other
corrupt motive, and pled^d themselves that no other consideration
should weip^h with them in giving their votes, but the public in-
terest. This done, the archons submitted the names of eight or
ten candidates, out of whom three were to be elected Demogerontes ;
and the assembly, ns each name was proclaimed, said ** Content,"
by shouting, " KaXoc ! «/itoc! afcoc !** or " Non-content,*' by shout-
ing repeatedly *^ Ovl! oylV* Where the votes were dubious, the
question was deciaed by show of hands. But the business did
not end without a split ; for some of the archons, who were dis-
appointed in carrying the election in favour of their own friends,
withdrew in nnger from the meeting, and were followed by their
adherents. The remainder of the electors, however, went on with
the list of candidates until a final choice was made, and then pro-
ceeded to the business of voting. Instead of vases, they made use
of common glasses, over which a piece of paper with an aperture
in it, bearing the candidate's name, had been fastened. These
glasses were placed upon a table in the middle of the church, under
the safe*keeping of three priests ; each citizen went into the church
singly, had his name recorded in a register, and received three v
beans, which he deposited in three of the glasses. The latter
were ultimately opened, and the beans of each candidate counted ;
the result being determined by relative majority. By the time that
all this had been transacted, afternoon was at hand, and the assem-
bly had dwindled down to one fourth of its original numbers. You
must not be surprised at the injustice, which was done to the
paroiks^ or strangers, who form by far the most affluent and well-
educated portion of the present inhabitants of Athens, by excluding
them from all participation in such proceedings as these. It was
the besetting sin of the ancient Greeks, and has descended with in-
creased virulence to the modern, for every one to prefer his native
town and its local interests to the welfare not only of any neigh«
bouring town or province, but of his native country.'

MOLDAVIA AND WALACHIA.

Of late years, but more particularly since these Principalities have
been under the protection of Russia, it is remarkable with what
vigour the higher classes of natives have set about improving their
national dialect, and promoting the interests of literature and gene-
ral civilization. They have adopted Modern Greek as their chief
model in the former respect, but not without endeavouring to make
it harmonize, as much as is practicable, with the classical languages
of the ancient Hellenic and less ancient Roman ; indeed it appears
highly probable, that it will ultimately be rendered much nearer
akin to the latter, than even the Italian. The Principalities have a
political, as well as a literary, journal, both of which are ably con-
ducted ; they have a printing-house at Bucharest, which is
in active requisition, several excellent schools of the higher class,
and a number of booksellers' shops, stored with Greek, Latin,
French, Italian, and German publications. Walachian pens are

Foreign. 173

constantly engaged in translating the leading foreign works, as well
as in writing original ones ; and the profitable sale, which they
find for both, is no tittle proof of the interest which the public takes
in literary pursuits. Many of the Bojars send their sons for educa*
tion to Vienna, Paris, and other places on the Continent ; and the
general attention, which learning and science have awakened, has
had the effect of rousing even the Transylvanian from his lethargy.
^^ ErdHyicky Erdelyick r^ exclBdms a native, in a remonstrance in-
serted in Pethe's '^Nemzet T&rsalkodd'' (The National Companion),
*' vlgyazzcUok, tnert az Oldk nemzet ma holndp selgul kerchedik a'
tudomdnyo9 mivelSdesben.** ** Transylvanians, Transylvanians I
look well to it ; for, either to-day or to-morrow, the Walachlan
nation will raise themselves higher than yourselves in science and
learning." {Extract of a letter from Dr, R, at Gran.)

AFRICA.

The Arab and Israelite in Egypt, — ^Alexandria, as well as Cairo,
is grown into a complete rookery for the Hebrew race, who have
almost monopolized the trade of the town, and consequently put on
airs of self-complacency and importance, which are frequently
carried to the most ridiculous of lengths. Knowing that, as Jews,
they would find but little favour in the eyes of Arab or Turk, they
carefully identify themselves with the Christians, under Ihe generic
name of Franks ; and pass current for such among their infidel
neighbours. It is allowable for any European to adopt the Turkish
costume, and appear with arms by his side ; the Jew has not
omitted to profit by the license, and many of them being employed
as Dedshims or dragomans, translators, and apothecaries in the
Pasha's service, you will see them strutting about in Turkish habili-
ments, richly embroidered in gold, with enormous mustachios, and
a tremendous scymitar dangling from their girdles. In this way
they escape the degrading epithet, " Jehudi !" (or Jew), which, with
Arab and Ottoman, is but another word for the most sovereign con-
tempt which his lips can express. Yet both Jew and Arab are
Semitic descendants from the same stock ; the one, God's chosen
people, sprung from the loins of Abraham and Sarah's second-born ;
the other, a race, in every physical respect, their superiors, fickle
and volatile, intellectual and enterprising, sons of the desert, tracing
their descent from Ishmael, the first-born. The external similarity
of their language, however the written character may disguise it,
bears testimony to their kindred origin ; and the enmity which subsists
between them to this day furnishes another proof in favour of it ;
for the modern Arab, like his Coptic neighbour, who is the indispu-
table representative of the ancient Egyptian, bears a traditional
hatred towards the Jew, at whose hands he firmly believes both
himself and his forefathers to have received the brand of servitude.
And if you would have ocular evidence of its miseries, walk out of
Alexandria through the southern gate, and the first object which
meets your eye in that direction is a multitude ' of low, miserable
cabins, three feet high, built with the broken stones collected from

174 Miscellaneous.

the ruins of (his quarter of the town when it gfowed with life and
splendour under the sceptre of the Ptolemies ; mud is their only
cement ; the walls are covered with lumps of earners dung*, hung up
to dry ; the ceiling is formed of twigs of the date, laid crosswise,
and closed with a mat made of the leaves of the same tree ; and
both are overlaid with a comp6t of filth and mud. Such is the
Arab's present home ; and here and there, if he chance to be wealthy
enough to indulge in such a luxury, you may detect a corner with A
sorry mat in it ; this is his only couch. And when he lies down
upon it, he draws his tattered garment over his head, and rolld
himself up like a hedgehog. Do not ask me to draw the picture of
his wife and daughters. Fancy human beings in the last stage of
degradation — and they stand before you. The Arab race, in short,
under the tender rule of Mehemed Ali, are, in habits, morals, and
civilization, whole centuries behind even the lazzaroni of the Riva
de* Schiavoni, or the Esquimaux of the Polar seas. — C.

ALGIERS.

Seminaries, ^c. — ^These establishments now comprise a Christian
school, which is attended by 80 boys, 2 Christian schools in which
are 34 girls, 26 Mohammedan schools with 315 boys^ 17 Jewish
schools for 430 boys, and a school for instructing Jews in French.
Over and above these 47 seminaries and their 899 pupils, consider-
able progres has been made towards opening a large school for
teaching French. The population of the town, for whose benefit
all these establishments have been erected, consisted on the 1st of
January, 1833, of 25,226 souls, amongst whom were 5226 Euro-
peans; namely 571 subjects of the British crown, almost exclusively
from Gibraltar and Malta, 925 Spaniards, mostly from the Balearic
islands, 405 Italians, and 3325 Frenchmen. The remaining inha-
bitants of Algiers consist of 12,000 Moors, 2000 Beduins and Ne-
groes, and 6000 Jews.

It appears, from Rozet's recent ** Journey through the Regency
of Algiers," that, as yet, the French possess so limited a tenure of
the soil as scarcely to have extended their dominion beyond the
spots in the immediate occupation of their military garrisons. Any
European, who may venture beyond reach of their, guns, does so at
the peril of seeing the Moor or Berber's spear and sabre brandished
over his head. Every inch, which is not occupied by the military,
is foeman's gi'ouud. Two- thirds of the Algerine territory, extend-
ing from the coast to the foot of the lesser Atlas, are covered with
bushes ; they require nothing but the plough to provide bread for
thousands ; but in the present state of things, the plough must
travel hand in hand with the musket. Rozet says, that the climate
is healthy, with the exception of that which prevails along the low
marshy g.round near the banks of rivers, where the miasma is pro-
ductive of extremely dangerous fevers. He fixes the mean tempera*
ture of Algiers at 17° (or 70° of Fahrenheit), and observes that
the thermometer never descends below zero ; though, owing proba-
bly to the want of proper precautions, the cold is very piercing. In

Foreign, 175

the sandy tracts the thermometer rises to 45® and even 46° of heat
(above 130° of Fahrenheit); the soles of the shoe are positively
burnt in crossing the deserts, although an egg resists the. effects of
this intense temperature, even if it be buried in the sand. Between
nine and ten is the hour of the day when the heat is most intense.
The wind rarely blows from the east or west, but generally from the
north ; and the interval between November and Slay is the season
of rain and storms. The leaves fall at the close of December, but
are succeeded by youngvegetation at the commencement of January:
The long and dreary period of our European winters is unknown in
the regency of Algiers ; nature assumes her winter garb merely td
show that she has one, and instantly apparels herself again in anew
robe of splendid verdure. The olive tree grows to the size of oui?
oak ; but the fruit is small, and, from want of better care, the oil
made from it is bitter and unpalatable. Rozet gives it as his
opinion that Algiers could be made to supply France with all the
oil and silk which that country at present receives from foreign
countries. The date is fond of ruins and cemeteries ; pomegranates
abound ; the orange of Belyda is fully equal to that of Majorca ;
but the apricot is a dangerous fruit here, and goes by the name of
the Mazza-franca, or *' killer of the Franks (European)." Algiers
IS peculiarly the land of vines, and might be made to produce wines
of the choicest quality. It has mines, particularly of copper as
Rozet sees reason to believe, which remain to be explored and
worked ; but, with regard to the animal kingdom, he remarks that
it presents but little variety, and that the French soldier has been
more successful in civilizing monkeys than Beduins. On this a
French critic observes, that •* the monkey fondles in the soldier's
bosom, but the Beduin meets his caress with a bullet.''

NORTH AMERICA.

United States.

The St, John Indians. — On the northern bank of the St. John, and
within the disputed territory, is found the settlement of Madawaska.
This place, containing a population of two or three thousand, has
lately attracted considerable attention. The first inhabitants were
some French neutrals, who, in 1755, escaped from the savage
cruelty of their civilized enemies, and fled to ^he wilderness to enjoy
their liberty, religion, and lives. But the same power, by which
they were once oppressed, is still exerted over them, and they have
found their residence in the forests no safeguard against the rod of
their former masters. They have generally preserved the French
language of the seventeenth century, and the old manners, customs,
and fashions of the Gallic colonies. Near to this singular people,
and somewhat connected with them, we find the tribe of St. John
Indians. Only three small communities of the aborigines now
remain ; the St. John's tribe, and those on the Penobscot and at
Passamaquoddy, consisting of three or four hundred persons each.
These are the miserable remnants of the once powerful race that

176 Miscellaneous.

held the other tribes, as fwr south as New York^ in constant fear of
their attacks ; and, who, with little intermission, waged, for more
than fffty years, a war of extermination against the inhabitants of the
eastern country. Their incursions caused the destruction of nearly
as many of our people as the last war with Great Britain. The
leading tribe (the Penobscot Indians) reside on some fine islands
in the beautiful river which bears their name. Their settlements
commence at Old Town Island, about twelve mites above Bangor,
and are scattered along the islands in the stream, more than forty
miles. This part of the river is in general wide, smooth, and glassy ;
and skirted with the luxuriant flowering maple. The low alluvial
islands appear like so many floating gardens on the bosom of the
smooth, still stream. These delightful abodes have but few charms
for the savage ; he rarely attempts to cultivate his lands, but prefers
the precarious subsistence of the hunter, and passes his life in
alternate want and profusion, stupid indolence, and unnatural
exertion. They, as well as the other two tribes, are nominally
Catholics, have a church at Old Town, and are usually attended by
a priest. Their language is smooth though guttural, and abounds
in long compound words. Some attempts have been made by their
priests to teach them to read and write, with limited success. Their
intellectual faculties are good, but their schools are not equal to
those of their civilized neighbours.

Education in the Slate of Mitine, — ^The common schools of Maine
are inferior to none in the Union. As soon as the separation had
taken place (from Great Britain), the attention of the legislature
was directed to the subject of education, and the laws respecting it
underwent a thorough revision. Every town is required, under a
penalty, to raise at least forty cents to each inhabitant, for the
support of common schools ; and there are few that do not exceed
the requisition of the statute. A comparison of the proficiency of the
students at common schools in Maine with those in Massachusetts,
would be decidedly in favour of the former. In most of the
higher institutions, however, the case would be reversed. Bowdoin
College, and the Medical School attached to it, are exceptions to this
observation, and would advantageously compare with institutions of
the same nature in any country. Many persons in this State have
believed, that a more practical education than is generally acquired
at literary institutions would be of great utility to persons engaged
in the active business of life. The legislature has lately taken
measures to investigate the subject, and to determine the propriety
of altering the course of studies pursued in those institutions over
which it has control. The opinion begins to prevail, that the
study of the ancient languages is not attended with so many advan-
tages as formerly, when most scientific works were written in them ;
and some consider the study of Greek and Latin not only in a great
measure useless, but, on the whole, injurious. — {North American
Review, October, 1833.)

Hayti, — ^Literary pursuits are no novelty amongst the sable citizens
of this commonwealth ; and newspapers and books belong to the

Foreign. 177

ordinary appearances of the day: the Haytian penmen have even
got up a critical review, which they have entitled " The New Literary
World." One of the last Numbers contains a somewhat singular
article, written, as it appears, by no less eminent a personage than
the ** Count de la Marmelade." The subject which he has chosen
for his biographical flight is a history of the Emperor Christophe ;
and the following extract may serve as a fair specimen of the state
of the lettered community, for whose edification the Count has
set himself in type. ** I do love and admire the great man", says
our biographer in his Introduction. " Now, do thou listen," he
adds, addressing the reader, '* and hear me tell of his brilliant
campaigns, and how he so contrived, that black should be put
upon white ; very kind he was towards the soldiers in the field,
but many a time hard of heart on parade; every day he devoured six
little whites for his breakfast, and numbers of snakes did he give the
public to devour." And in this strain the Count ambles on to the
end of his sixteenth page. Neither history nor biography were
perchance ever dispatched in such style as this before.

New California (an Extract from P,de Morineau's Communi-
cation to Baron A. de Humboldt.) — ^The Spaniards began to establish
themselves in this country in 1769, and built four Presidios close to
the best harbours ; these Presidios are now become the capitals of
the four districts of which the province is composed. They are
denominated San Diego, Santa Barbara, Monterey, and San
Francisco. It was the Franciscan brothers, however, who really
laid the foundations of the missions, under which they have gradually
collected the Indians whom they have succeeded in civilizing. Such
as would not submit have withdrawn into the interior, and still
adhere to their original mode of life. They are all known by the
general name of Tolfes, though they are of various races. At the
termination of the last century there was not an inhabitant in any of
the Presidios, excepting the twenty or thirty soldiers employed in
protecting them ; and the only buildings they contained were a
barrack and an insignificant fort, on which the ostentatious name of
" Castillo" was conferred. But, at the present day, the Presidio is
become a borough, inhabited by Creoles of all descriptions, and
ruled by military law. Such villages as are peopled with Californian
citizens since the year 1824 are called " Pueblos," and are governed
by alcaldes. The ** Ranchos," which it were more appropriate to
term *' Haciendas," are isolated farms. The ecclesiastics, belonging
to the missions, perform all religious duties, and likewise keep the
registers of the civil administration. The seat of government is at
Monterey, where the governor of the two Californias resides ; and
the state, of which I am now speaking, did not shake off the Spanish
dominion until the year 1821. It was declared part of the territories
of the Mexican Confederation by the constitution of October,
1824. Nothing can exceed the salubrity of New California ; the
seasons are similar in division to those of France ; but the winters are
much milder, and the heat more moderate. It were much to be
wished, that so fine a country as this possessed a population

Oct., 1833-Jan., 1834. N

178 Miscellaneous,

equivalent to its extent ; but so far from it, there are scarcely more
than three and thirty thousand souls distributed over a surface of
five thousand square leagues, according to the subsequent appor-
tionment ; —

Southern Districts.

Earopean Race
or Creoles.

Natives, or
Indians.

San Diego
Santa Barbara

589
767

6728

8768

Monterey
San Francisco

620

758

2734 Creoles!

6512
5773

tal

and 27,781 I

This enumeration is independent of about forty Creole families,
who reside upon the ranchos^ and between three and four thousand
•' Indios reducidos,'* or new converts, who are pas.siiig through a spe-
cies of noviciate in the villages adjoining the missions, and, after the
term of trial is over, are admitted into the religious communities
under the name of *• Parientes,'' or kinsmen. The Indians are
much better treated at the present day than in the time of La Perouse
and Vancouver; indeed their condition appears to me to have
undergone every amelioration compatible with the theocratical
government under which they live. Brick dwellings have been
substituted for their former wretched cabins •, they are plentifully
supplied with food, and considerable numbers of them are clad in
the European dress. This change has had some influence on the
mental disposition of the Parientes themselves ; those at least who
are employed in mechanical arts are not wanting in intelligence;
and I should be led, therefore, to conclude, that the stupidity which
still appears to characterise the majority of these Indians arises as
|T)uch from an excess of rigour in the pains bestowed upon them by
their spiritual fathers as from the quality of mind attributed to their
race. What would confirm me still more in this opinion is, that
those settlements, where affairs are conducted with the nearest
approximation to our own principles, are the very spots where I
found the reason most developed and the welfare of the community
in the most advanced state. Among the Creoles, the births are
three times as many as the deaths ; but Qmong the Indians, the latter
fire not even balanced by the former : the one enjoy robust health and
a strong constitution, whilst the other, whom the missionaries compare
with children, have not the slightest forethought in their compo-
aition, pay no attention whatever to the sickness or disease which is the
customary fruit of their intemperance, and appear, in the majority of
instances, to have lost even the instinct of self-preservation.

PHILADELPHIA.

Girard CoUegc-r-The corner-stppp of this institution was laid oa
Thursday* July, at Philadelphia) and the cerempny witnessed by a

Foreign, 179

large and respectable assemblage of citizens. An address was de-
livered on Ihe occasion by Nicholas Biddle, which is spoken of by
the National Gazette, in terms of unqualified admiration. * The
public, like the auditory/ says the editor, ' will feel its eloquence
and beauty, and the force of those apt and powerful considerations
by which Mr. Biddie recommends so noble an institution.' — New
York Paper.

SOUTH AMERICA.

New Granada, — An official return states the number of schools in
this portion of the Columbian republic at 332. In Bogota alone there
are 62, and in Carthagena, 74. The number of children educated
in them is 9025. The Lancasterian system has been introduced
into twenty of the schools, which have been opened in Bogota.

Brazilian Gipsies. — M. Pohl, the keeper of the Imperial Museum
of Natural History at Vienna, who travelled through the interior of
Brazil between the years 1817 and 1821, at the expense of the
Austrian government, and has lately published the first volume (and
a splendid one it is) of the result of his investigations, gives the
following account of the Gipsies in that country : — '* On our way from
Meiaponte, (the second town in rank in the Capitania of Goyaz : ) to
the twenty-six Legaos, we fell in with a troop of gipsies, consisting
of five men armed with muskets, and several women, three of them
having children with them, who were clad in rags, which were not
sufficient, in many instances, to cover their nakedness. . . . Even in the
Brazils, the gipsies maintain, that they originally came from Egypt,
and they have preserved the old tradition, that it is their doom to
wander for ever over the globe in a state of homelessness and
dispersion, as a punishment for the sin of having refused an asylum
to the Virgin Mary at the time of her flight. They are found in
greatest numbers in the Capitania of Minas Geraes. Here, as under
every other sky, they lead a wandering life, deal in soothsaying,
employ themselves in curing or exorcising diseases, and, as oppor-
tunity offers, steal horses and mules, under covert of the night.
They have rendered themselves so formidable to the owners of
Fazendas and Engenhos, that they enter their residences without so
much as asking permission of them ; on such occasions, however,
their conduct is peaceable, and they are careful not to lay their
hands upon any thing.''

AUSTRALIA.

Sydney Mechanics* School of Arts, — This institution was established
22nd March, 1833; and from a copy of its laws which we have
received, it appears to present a very close imitation of our
Mechanics' Institutions, and as such affisrds another pleasing
evidence of the rapid advance which the very remarkable penal
colony in New South Wales has made, and is making. The
object of the institution is stated to be the diffiision of scientific and
other useful knowledge as extensively as possible throughout the
colony of New South Wales, by forming, for the use of the members,

180 Miscellaneous.

a library ; by engaging teachers and lecturers on the various
branches of science and art; by purchasing and collecting apparatus
and models fitted for illustrating the principles of physical and
mechanical philosophy, and by promoting, in every way possible
and proper, the knowledge of the members, by the mode of mutual
instruction. The rate of subscription is below that at the London
Mechanics* Institution. The entrance money bs, ; the amount of a
life subscription, 5Z. ; or for a year 12«., a half year 8»., a quarter
bs. ; and persons who only wish to attend the lectures may purchase
tickets of admission. A life member receives a card which entitles
him to admission to the reading room, the use of the library, all
the lectures, all the classes, all the general meetings. He has the
power of speaking and voting at the general meetings ; he is
eligible to all the offices of the institution ; and he is entitled to
introduce one of the members of his family, or a friend, not residing
within seven miles of Sydney, to any of the lectures given at the
institution, at which he himself is present. All the same privileges,
except the last, are enjoyed by the occasional members. In London, it
is only necessary to make a personal application to the secretary, in
order to become a member ; but at Sydney, the person desirous of
admission must be nominated by two members, and it is decided by
a majority of the committee of management whether the party
proposed shall be a member. If elected, he must procure two
persons, to be approved by the committee, as securities for the value
of the books he receives, and for the payment of any fines and
penalties he may incur.

Calcutta. — At a very numerous meeting lately held in this
town, presided over by the Bishop, the institution of infant schools
upon an extensive scale in that presidency was decided upon. The
Governor- General has become the patron of the Society for carry-
ing this determination into effect ; and the committee have for-
warded instructions to this country for procuring properly qualified
persons as master and mistress of the central school there.

( 181 )

BRITISH.

UNIVERSITY INTELLIGENCE.

OxFoiiD University. — Dec. 11th. — Nomina Candidatorum Ter-
mino Michaelis, a.d. 1833, qui honore digni sunt habiti in una-
quaque classe secundum ordinem alphabeticum disposita.

In Disciplinis, Mathematicis, et Physicis. — Class I. — Makeson,
William, King's College. Class II. — Coope^ Joseph R., ex Mde
Christi; Walker, Joseph, Wad ham College. Class III. — Comyn,
Henry, Exeter College ; Murray, Henry Stormont, ex iEde Christi ;
Read, Thomas, F. R., University College. Class IV. — ^Thomas,
Richard, Wadham College. Examiners. — S. Falconer, A.. Neate,
H, Reynolds.

Cambridge. — The subject of the Norrisian Prize for the ensuing
year is — ** The divine origin of Christianity proved by the accom-
plishment of the Prophecies delivered by Christ himself."

The number of resident members of the University is stated to
be in commons, 1669 ; of whom there are in lodgings, 562. The
matriculations at Easter Term were 363.

The number of resident members in the October Term, for the
last ten years, has been as follows: — 1824, 1684 3 1825, 1711;
1826, 1700; 1827, 1741; 1828, 1761; 1829, 1771 ; 1830, 1794;
1831, 1692; 1832, 1697 ; 1833, as above.

At a congregation on the 4th of December, two graces were
brought forward by Professor Pryme ; one, to appoint a syndicate
or committee to consider the propriety of discontinuing the sub-
scription to the three articles of the 36th canon at the time of taking
the degree of M.A., &c., or to substitute some other subscription in
its stead ; the other, to consider of the propriety of discontinuing
the subscription, that the individual is bona fide a member of the
Church of England at the time of taking the degree of Bachelor of
Arts, and to inquire whether some other form of subscription might
not be substituted in its stead. They were both rejected by the Caput.

Vrize SvhjecU, — The Vice-Chancellor has issued the following
notice in the University: —

I. His Royal Highness the Chancellor being pleased to give
annually a third gold medal for the encouragement of English
poetry, to such resident Undergraduates as shall compose the best
Ode, or the best Poem in }ieroic verse ; the Vice-Chancellor gives
notice that the subject for the present year is — * The Second Trium-
virate.*

N.B. — These exercises are to be sent in to the Vice-Chancellor
on or before March 31, 1834 ; and are not to exceed 200 lines in
length.

II. The representatives in Parliament for this University being
pleased to give annually —

(1.) Two prizes of 15 guineas each, for the encouragement of

182 Miscellaneous,

Latin prose composiiioni to be open to all Bachelors of Arts, with-
out distinction of years, who are not of sufficient standing to take
the degjee of Master of Arts ; and

(2,) Two other prizes of 15 guineas each, to be open to all Un-
dergraduates who shall have resided not less than seven terms at
the time when the exercises are to be sent in.

The subjects for the present year are —

(1.) For the Bachelors : —

QutBtiam nnt commoda expecianda d recenti apud Cantabrigiam
darorum virorum congresau ?

(2,) For the Undergraduates i —

Quinam sint effectus libertalia in posseasionibus HispanitE tranS"
atlaniicis ?

N.B. These exercises are to be sent in on or before April 30,
1834.

III. Sir William Browne having bequeathed three gold medals,
Value 5 guineas each, to such resident undergraduates as shall
compose

(1.) The best Greek Ode in imitation of Sappho ;

(2.^ The best Latin Ode in imitation of Horace ;

^3.) The best Greek Epigram after the model of the Anihologia,
and

The best Latin Epigram after the model of Martial;

The subjects for the present year are —

(1.) For the Greek Ode—

Niger navigabilis.

(2.) For the Latin Ode—

Australia expeditio Johannis Frederici Gulielmi Herschely cquitis
aur(tti»

(3.) For the Epigrams —

Scire tuum nihil est^ nisi ie scire hoc sciat alter.

N.B. These exercises are to be sent in on or before April 30,
1834. The Greek Ode is not to exceed 25, and the Latin Ode 30
stanzas.

The Greek Ode may be accompanied by a literal Latin prose
version.

IV. The Porson Prize is the interest of 400Z. stock, to be an-
nually employed in the purchase of one or more Greek books, to
be given to such resident Undergraduates as shall make the best
translation of a proposed passage in Shakspeare, Ben Jonson, Mas-
singer, or Beaumont and Fletcher, into Greek verse.

The subject for the present year is Shakspeare, King Richard II.
Act. III. Scene 2, beginning —

* K. Rich. Let's talk of graves, of worms, and epitaphs;* and
ending,

• How can you say to me — I am a king V

N.B. The metre to be Tragicum lambicum Trimetrum aca ialc-
iicum. These exercises are to be accentuated, and accompanied by
a literal Latin prose version, and are to be sent in on or before
April 30, 1834.

British. 183

N.S. All the above exercises are to be sent in to the Vice-Chan-
cellor privately ; each is to have some motto prefixed, and to be
accompanied by a paper sealed up, with the satne motto on the out-
side ; which paper is to enclose another, folded up, having the can-
didate's name and college written within. The papers containing
the names of those candidates who may not succeed will be destroyed
urtopetied. Any candidate is at liberty to send in his exercise printed
or lithographed. No prizes will be given to any candidate who has
not, at the time of sending in the exercises, resided one term at the
least.

Westminster School. — On December II, according to annual
custom, one of Terence's plays was represented. The otie selected
on this Occasion was the Phormio, It has been stated in the Times
newspaper that the pupils displayed considerable proficiency and
talent in the exhibition, and that it was witnessed by a large company;
but it is added that there was a considerable breach of decorum
towards the conclusion, by hot roasted potatoes being thrown at and
among the company. If this statement be correct, it says little in
commendation of the discipline of the school ; and if this exhibition
leads to the display of such conduct, it may be questioned whether
it might not be discontinued with advantage.

Durham University. — It is stated that the property given up by
the Dean and Chapter for the purpose of founding this University,
is of the value of 94,000/. The Bishop of Durham also subscribes
1000/. per annum towards its support, besides having given two
donations of 1000/. each to the building fund, and purchased a resi-
dence for one of the professors, which he has also assigned to the
University. This establishment was opened on Monday, the 27th
of October, when nineteen young gentlemen were admitted on the
foundation. ■ ■

Royal Naval School. — In this institution, which has been for
some months past carried on at a temporary establishmfent irt
Camberwell, 150 boys have been provided with board and a liberal
education, calculated to fit them for the naval service, at a charge of
25/. per annum. The house is now being Enlarged for the reCep*
tion of 50 more students; and there are still many candidates.
This institution has been very liberally supported by the naval pro-
fession, and the public also have added their contributiotis. It Id
undoubtedly very desirable that officers, many of whom have little
else for the support of their families than their half-pay, should have
the means bf procuring for their sons an education that will at least
fit thetn for the same rank in society which they have themselves held.
This, according to the general rate of charge for educatidd, has
been hitherto almost impossible in England, and in consequence
many naval officers have been forced to reside in foreign coun-
tries in order to obtain the requisite instruction for their families*
This necessity the present establishment will at least tend to remove,
and were it possible to reduce the charge to 20/, per anntlm, it
might be expected to remove it more effectually.

184 Miscellaneous.

National School Society. — The 22nd Report of the National
Society for promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of
the Established Church, besides the usual annual information, affords
an interesting retrospective view of the labours of this institution,
in a copy of a petition presented in August, 1832, to the King,
imploring his Majesty to issue his Royal Letters directing collections
to be made in all churches and chapels throughout England and Wales
in furtherance of the Society's designs. From this document it appears
that the produce of the collections made in 1823, under the au-
thority of the King's Letter, amounting to 32,709/., was expended
in promoting the erection of school-rooms in 361 places, which con-
tained a population of one million and a half; accommodation has
been thus permanently secured for the education of 58,000 children
by a total outlay, including the Society's grants, of about 130,000/.
The Society was also enabled to assist in training 400 additional
masters and mistresses in the principles and practice of the national
system of education. In addition to this expenditure, voluntary
donations and bequests, together with the aid of local associations
in various parts of the country, have enabled the Society, since its
establishment in the year 181 1, to effect an outlay upon similar ob-
jects, of above 75,000/. The model school and training establishment
for providing competent teachers have been carried on in the metro-
polis by means of the annual subscriptions of the members of the
Society, at an expense of about 1000/. a year. It is therefore repre-
sented that, on the most moderate estimate, during the period of the
Society's existence, upwards of 107,000/, have been expended in
the erection of school-rooms, which have been completed at a cost
of four times that amount, the Society only affording their assistance
in aid of the local contributions; and that, in the mean while, 1900
adult persons have been taught the improved system of education
promoted by the Society, and stationed as teachers in various parts
of the kingdom for the moral and religious discipline and improve-
ment of the infant poor.

Operations on so extensive a scale could not have been carried on
unless the efforts of the Society had been efficiently seconded by
those of the public, and unless a desire to disseminate or procure
instruction had been very generally diffused, and steadily on the
increase. Accordingly it appears that, whereas the Charter of In-
corporation (in 1817) records the existence of 725 schools united
to the Society, containing 17,000 children under instruction in
them ; the Society is now enabled to produce a list of 3084 places
with schools, containing nearly 400,000 scholars, being nearly one-
half of the children receiving education through the medium of the
Established Church. A note to this statement explains that, from
calculations formed on the most recent information, it appears there
cannot be less than 900,000 children in the Sunday and other Church
of England schools under the immediate superintendence of the
clergy.

The annual expenditure of the Society has been considerably
augmented within the \^&i few years : it has risen from an annual

BritisL 185

average of about 3000/. to 6635/., the amount of grants voted
during each of the last two years. Meanwhile, the manufacturing
and mining districts in the north, more particularly in Lancashire
and Durham, as well as the poorer inhabitants of Wales, with many
other more remote and necessitous places in the kingdom, are still
looking to the Society for a share in that bounty, of which, from
a variety of causes, they have not been able to avail themselves.
From the collections recently made under the authority of the king's
letters^ 22,36*2/. had been received at the time of making up the
Report. It is apprehended that the total amount of the collections,
when ascertained, will fall short of that in 1823 ; but with such
contributions as have been actually received, the committee find
themselves possessed of ample means for carrying on at present the
designs of the Society. Much has already been accomplished : the
sum of 5939Z. 14«. has been granted during the past year towards
the erection of school rooms in 109 places, one-half of which contain
a population of above 1000 souls. Of these 109 grants, 30 have
been appropriated to manufacturing places, and 10 to the poor
parishes in Wales, the wants of which interesting portion of the
kingdom has been pressed on the attention of the committee by her
Royal Highness the Duchess of Kent in a letter accompanied by
the munificent donation of 100/. to the funds of the institution.
On the whole, 157 new school-rooms are erecting, capable of
accommodating 14,600 children ; by means of which, many schools
already subsisting will be more suitably accommodated, and an
addition made to the total number of poor children receiving edu-
cation to the amount of 10,600. Much, however, remains to be
done ; and the committee, in prosecuting their former plans, have
determined to circulate a letter to all places having a population of
1000 souls, and not having schools in union, to invite the resident
gentry, through the clergymen, to connect their schools with the
Society, wherever they have been formed, or to establish such as
are needful, if none already exist.

The Society has been enabled, during the past year, to remove
its central school from Baldwin's Gardens to the more convenient
and central premises which it has received as a gift from the mana-
gers of the late Westminster National School, and which have been
secured to the National Society in its corporate capacity. But it is
stated, with satisfaction, that the former school is likely still to be
carried on in an efficient state for the benefit of the poor parishioners
of St. Andrew's, Holborn.

The Appendix, No. 9, to the Report, exhibits the results of an
inquiry concerning works of industry connected with national
schools. The objections to such a connexion are thus in sub*
stance stated and answered.

Object. 1. — Children leave school too soon to learn perfectly any
art or trade; on an average, perhaps, few scholars remain afler
attaining their eleventh or twelfth year.

Ans. — They leave so early because they have then generally
learnt all that is taught. If there were employment going on which
delayed their progress in this, they would probably remain longer.

186 Miscellaneous.

Object. 2. — Not necessary, as the dhildren are generally eng^aged
by their parents in works of industry and habits of diligence at
home.

Afiif. — This is true ; but many children will take readily to work,
who dislike learning, and whose parents indulge their humour, and
suffer them to leave the school altogether.

Object, 3. — ^The expense of establishing such works : the little
profit to be ex))ected from them.

jins, — The objection only shows that caution is requisite ; that
the plan should be proceeded with gradually, and nothing under-
taken but upon a clear estimate of the cost to be incurred. Two
items only are to be covered by the produce of the work : first, the
bare expense of carrying it on ; second, some little reward to the
children employed.

Object. 4. — The danger of overstocking any branch of trade
beyond the average demand for the article produced ; and of
exciting jealousy by apparent competition.

Ans. — Occupations likely to produce such feelings may be
avoided. What evil at all commensurate to the good has resulted
from the employment of the girls in the schools at needlework?

Object. 5. — The diflficulty of finding employment for the children.

Ans. — Difficulty admitted often to be great ; but instances are
quoted to show that it has been and may be surmounted.

Object 6. — Few of the children would retain in after-life the
trade thus learned.

Ans. — ^The least important objection. The formation of a habit
of industry is the great object considered.

National Education. — In pursuance of are solution passed by the
House of Commons, the Secretary of State for the Home Department
has addressed a circular to the overseers of the poor in every parish
throughout the kingdom, requesting them to answer the questions
contained in the aforesaid resolution, which is as follows : — * That
there be laid before this house a return of the number of schools in
each town, chapelry, or extra-parochial place; which return, after
stating the amount of the population of the said town or place
according to the last census, shall specify — 1. Whether the said
schools are infant, daily, or Sunday schools. 2. Whether they are
confined, either nominally or virtually, to the use of children of the
Established Church, or of any other religious denomination. 3. Whe-
ther they are endowed or unendowed. 4. By what funds they are
supported ; if unendowed, whether by payments from the scholars,
or otherwise. 5. The number and sexes of the scholars in each
school. 6. The ages at which the children generally enter, and at
which they generally quit the school. 7. The salaries and other
emoluments allowed to the masters and mistresses in each school ;
and shall also distinguish — 8. Those schools which have been esta-
blished since 1818 — and 9. Those schools to which a lending
library is attached.'

The overseers or overseer of the poor of every parish or place in
England and Wales is requested to use his best endeavours to

British. 187

obtain satisfdctory answers to the aboye questions, And to give such
answers (in so far as they arc applicable to each parish or place) in
the manner pointed out in the circular ; or in case there should be
no school whatever in the parish or place, to return the circular
forthwith, with an answer to that effect, signed by such overseers or
overseer; but if there be any school or schools, the particulars of
which are known to them or him, to insert answers to the questions
applicable to such schools; or if there be schools, the particulars of
which are unknown to them or him, to send a printed copy of the
address to each schoolmaster or schoolmistress in turn, requesting
written information from them severally ; and, in any case the
overseers or overseer will return such answers, or their own answer
or answers (as the case may be), with the circular ; on the outside
of which a proper direction is printed for duly returning it to tlie
Home- office.

The schoolmaster or schoolmistress to whom this order is deli-
vered by the overseer will be so good as to answer the printed
questions (as follows), in so far as they are applicable to his or her
school : —

Infant Schools. — Specifying the number of infants in each
school ? And of what sex ? At what age they do usually enter,
and at what age do they usually quit the school ?

Daily Schools. — Specifying the number of scholars in each
school? And of what sex? At what age do they usually enter,
and at what age do they usually quit school ?

Sunday Schools, — Specifying the number of scholars in each
school? And of what sex ? At what age do they usually enter,
and at what age do they usually quit school ?

Endowed and other Scitoola. — Whether endowed school or
schools? If not endowed, by what funds supported — that is,
whether by payments from the scholars or otherwise ? If by
salaries, or other allowed emoluments, be pleased to specify parti-
culars.

Religion. — f s any school confined (nominally or virtually) to the
established church ? Or to any other denomination or religious
persuasion ? If any of the above schools established since the year
1818, be pleased to specify the date when they severally com-
menced. Is any lending library of books attached to any of these

schools ?

Be pleased to insert any observations which occur to you relative
to the above questions, or any of them.

Signed this day of 1833.

Schoolmaster at
Schoolmistress at
The Right Hon. C. P. Thomson, also at a public dinner given to
him at Manchester on Dec. 18, in the course of his speech took
occasion to express himself on the subject of public education as
follows : — * There is also, gentlemen, the great question of national
education. Amongst those whom I see around me, I know that
many feel a deep interest in this question. How can it be other-

188 Miscellaneous.

wise, when I, who am but a casual observer here, and who have so
few opportunities during the short space in which I am present
among you (a space of time rendered shorter by your kindness and
hospitality) — when I cannot but be struck with almost astonishment
when I see how little, in com])arison with your wishes, has been
effected in this g^reat purpose. Private benevolence — private in-
dustry — private exertion can undoubtedly effect much ; but the
system should be a national one. it is an object worthy — ay, the
most worthy of the attention of the nation. If before — if under any
circumstances it were so — permit me to say that under the circum-
stances of this country, it is become more than in any place im-
portant. Power has been confided to hands that knew it not before.
Glad I am that it has, on all accounts, but on one I am particularly
so; inasmuch as I think it must force upon every refiectingf mind
the necessity of seeinn^ that means are provided in order that that
power shall be properly wielded — means which can only be found
in the education of the people.'

Banbury. — The Banbury National Schools for the education of
boys and g^irls have been established sixteen years. There was an
old endowment for ciothinp: and educating^ a limited number of
children, and the trustees under that endowment clothe sixteen boys
and twelve girls, and pay 30Z. per annum towards the expenses of
the National Schools, in which the children elected under the trust
are educated. But the far greater part of the expenses of the
National Schools is defrayed by public contributions. In 1832 the
amount of subscription was 88/. 9s. 3d. The average number of
children in the schools during the present year has been one hun-
dred and twenty boys and seventy-five girls.

Besides the National Schools, there are three large and efficient
Sunday and Evening Schools. Originally there was but one esta-
blished, in 1802, at the old dissenting or Presbyterian Chapel;
but fur several years a division has taken place, and the children
have been educated at the school-rooms of the different chapels.

The school kept at the Independent Chapel educates at present
208 children. They are instructed by forty teachers on Sundays,
and also on two or three evenings in the week. Connected with
this school are two libraries ; one for the teachers, containing books
of a miscellaneous character ; and one for the children, chiefly com-
posed of works of a religious nature, or on subjects of general
elementary knowledge.

The Methodist School is attended by 120 boys and 135 girls, who
meet on Sundays. On two week-day evenings about 40 of the
oldest of the children attend to learn writing and accounts. The
number of male and female teachers is 38, the writing master (only)
being paid a small salary. There is here also a small library.

The Presbyterian School educates at the present time 52 boys
and 54 girls, who are instructed by 12 teachers.

Hence it appears that between 700 and 800 children are receiving
a regular education in Banbury by public charity ; out of a popula-

British. 1 89

tion consisting of 6427 persons. — From a Statement presented to
the Corporation Commissioners at Banbury.

Durham School of Industry. — At Durham, during^ the present
year, an institution called the '* Durham School of Industry" has
been formed for the purpose of instructing youn^ females, not only
in the usual branches of what is called education, but in the domestic
duties usually allotted to females, such as washing, ironing, cleanings
furniture, &c., &c. The morals and general conduct of the children
are carefully attended to, the object being to form them into useful
and respectable female servants. The short trial hitherto given to
the plan has proved perfectly satisfactory, and the committee are
only prevented by a want of funds, which are supplied by donations
and subscriptions, from extending their operations, and have there-
fore appealed to the public in behalf of the institution,

Yorkshire Institution for t/ie Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,
— In the year 1829 it was determined at a public meeting held at
Doncaster, to establish an institution for the instruction of the deaf
and dumb children of the poor in the county of York, it having
been ascertained that these unfortunate objects were more numerous
in that part of the country than had previously been imagined.
It had been at first intended to appeal to the public for donations to
furnish means for the erection of a suitable building; and several
noblemen and gentlemen subscribed most handsomely for that
especial object ; but the urgent calls made, about that time, upon
the liberality of the country, for the repair of York Minster, induced
the Committee to content themselves with commencing their un-
dertaking in hired premises. The public, however, answered
so liberally the call of the benevolent individuals who interested
themselves in the object, that they were enabled, in 1831, to effect
the purchase of the hired premises, called Eastfield House, which,
with some alterations, were capable of containing 100 children,
with every accommodation for the master, as well as for those
children of the more opulent who might be admitted afterwards, on
the payment of a larger sum than was usually required.

The first annual report of the Institution exhibited the receipts
of the year as 567/., and the expenditure as 56 U., with 20 male
pupils in the establishment. The last report shows the receipts
to be 1684Z., the expenditure 1403/., with 27 male, and 23 female
pupils. It was originally intended to limit the benefits of
the institution to Yorkshire ; but all the Yorkshire candidates
having been admitted, and many ai)plications having been received
from the neighbouring counties, it was determined to leave the
institution open to such applications at an increased rate of pay-
ment, provided that ample accommodation be always retained for
the deaf and dumb children of the county of York. Although
essentially a charitable institution, the friends of the pupils are
required to provide them with clothing, and to contribute some-
thing towards their support. This is generally 6L a year for each

190 Miscellaneous.

child ; but where there are two children of the same family, SL 8«.
for both. In cases where the friends can well afford it» however,
not less than 20/. is paid : and it is contemplated that about 25/.
will be required of the extra-provincial pupils, to whom the esta-
blishment is now open.

The institution not only provides for the religious and general
education of the pupils, but endeavours, as much as possible,
to introduce a spirit of industry among them. With this view,
the trades of shoemaker and tailor have been commenced by
several of the boys; and gardening in all its branches, with the
common labours of husbanclry, appears to form part of the employ-
ment of the others. The females are taught the necessary duties of
the household, and every other qualification to render them useful
and eflicieut as far as their infirmity will admit. In the last report,
the committee express the pleasure they feel in stating that (con-
sidering the difficulty of bringing the habits and minds of deaf and
dumb children into a proper state of discipline and attention) those
in the institution have learned, and understand and can express,
quite as much as could be expected.

In looking over the list of pupils given at the end of the re-
ports, one cannot fail to be struck by the number of deaf and
dumb individuals in the same family. In one case there are live
children in the same family deaf and dumb ; in four cases, three;
in three cases, two; and, in one case, the child has a deaf and
dumb father.

Nottingham. — A school of medicine has been recently esta-
blished in this town, to which the Duke of Newcastle has given a
donation of 500/.

Wallseno. — A national school was opened on Monday, Septem-
ber 30, for the first time, as a day-school, and was attended by 170
children.

Deptfqrd, near Bishop Wearmorith. — A national school has been
recently opened in this place, which is very regularly and nume-
rously attended.

Barnard Castle. — An infant school was opened here on Sepf
tember 13, and is proceeding with the fairest prospect of ad-
vantage to the district.

Northlbach Grammar School. — ^The Gloucester Journal say fi, —
♦ We feel great pleasure in stating the issue of a negotiation which
has recently taken place between the inhabitants of Northleach and
the leading members of Queen's College, Oxford, by which the
latter have agreed to cause an English education to be taught in
the school, in addition to the classics, and likewise to extend the
benefits of the school to all settled inhabitants, whereas, previously,
natives of the town, 07ily, were eligible.'

JBriiish. 191

SCOTLAND.

St. Andrew's. — A greut sensation has been produced in the
medical world by certain new regulations just issued by the Uni-
versity of St. Andrews, which place attendance on the classes of a
certain description of lecturers on the same footing^ with attend-
ance at classes in colleges, as qualifications for degrees. The fol-
lowing is the substance of the new rules : —

I. No candidate shall be admitted to examination till he has
subscribed a declaration that he is twenty-one years of age, and has
produced satisfactory evidence that he is of unexceptionable moral
character.

II. The candidate, if he be not in possession of the degree of
A.M., must produce certificates of his having had a liberal and
classical education, and be ready to undergo an examination as to
his proficiency in the Latin language.

III. The candidate must produce certificates that he has regularly
attended lectures delivered by professors in some university, or by
resident fellows of the Royal Colleges of Physicians or Surgeons of
London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, or Dublin, for at least
four complete sessions, duringybwr years, on the following branches i
— 1. Anatomy. — 2. Practical Anatomy. — 3, Chemistry. — 4. Theory
of Physic, or Physiology. — 5. Materia Medica and Pharmacy. — 6.
Principles of Pathology and Practice of Physic. — 7. Surgery (each
of the above courses to be of six months* duration.) — 8. Practical
Chemistry (three months.) — 9. Midwifery and Diseases of Women
and Children, do. — 10. An Apprenticeship, or Six Mouths' attend-
ance in the shop of an Apothecary, or in the Laboratory of a Public
Hospital or Dispensary. — 11. Attendance at a Public Hospital,
pontaining not less than eighty beds, for at least twelve months. To
these must be added, for degrees in Medicine, Clinical Medicine ;
for degrees in Surgery, Clinical Surgery. Two three months' courses
of either to be considered equivalent to one six months* course.

These regulations will be invariably observed, except when the
candidates are possessed of a surgeon's diploma from London,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, or Dublin ; have been in regular
practice previous to the year 1830, or have served as medical officers
in his Majesty's army, navy, or East India Company's service — in
which cases three years* attendance on the above courses will be
sustained.

The gentlemen appointed as conjunct examinators with the Pro-
fessor of Medicine in St. Andrews, are — Messrs. Robert Liston, J.
A. Robertson, J. Mackintosh, A. Lizars, and W. Gregory — the
four first members of the Royal College of Surgeons, and the last
members of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.

192

Miscellaneous.

UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN.

Ukiversitt Officers, 1834.

Chancellor, His Royal Highness the Duke of Cumberland, D.C.L.
Vice- Chancellor, His Grace the Lord Primate.
Provost of Trinity College, Barthol. Lloyd, D.D.

Senior Fcllowt,
Frs. Hodgkinson, LLD., Vice- Provost. Rev. Fran. Sadleir, D.D., Senior Dean,
Robt. Phipps, LL.D., Registrar. Librarian, and Catechist.

Rev. Thos. Prior, DJ}.^ Senior Leo- Rev. Chas. Wm. Wall, D.D., Auditor,
turer. Rev. Stepb. Creaghe Sandy, D.D.,

Rev. H. Wray, D.D., Senior Proctor. Bursar.

Junior Fellowi.
Rev. Rich. Macdonnell,D.D., Registrar Mountiford Longfield, LL.D.

of Chambers and Jun. Bursar.
Rev. Chas. Hare, D.D., Censor.
Rev. Jos. Henderson Singer, D.D.,

Registrar of Electors.
Rev. Thos. Gannon, D.D., Assist. Lib.
Rev. Jas. Thos. O'Brien, D.D.
Rev. Chas. Boyton, A.M.
Rev. John Blair Chapman, A.M.
Rev. Joseph Stack, A.M.
Rev. Humphry Lloyd, A.M.

Rev. Henry Kingsmill, A.M., Junior

Proctor.
Rev. John Lewis Moore, A.M., Junior

Dean.
Rev. Sam. John M'Clean, A.M.
Rev. Thos. Luby, A.M.
Rev, George Sidney Smith, A.M
Rev. Jas. Heuthorn Todd, A.M.
John Meade, B.A.
Jas. M'Cullagh, B.A.

Profeuorf and Lecturers,

Regiut Divinity, -^Chhrles R. Ebring-

ton, D.D.
Abp. King^s Divinity, — Jas. Thomas

O'Brien, D.D.
Regiut Greek, — Henry Wray, D.D.
Regius Civil Law. — Fras. Hodgkinson,

LL.D.
Regiiis English and Feudal Law. — Phil.

Crampton, LL.D.
Deputy, — Mountiford Longfield,
LL.D.
Begius PAytic-^Whitley Stokes, M.D.
Erasmus Smith's Hebrew, — Chas. W'ra.

Wall, D.D.

Oratory.— Rd, M'Don-

nell, D.D.

Mod. History. — Francis

Hodgkinson, D.C.L.

Preachers for the year.
Rev. Jos. H. Singer, D.D.
Rev. Jas. Thos. O'Biien, D.D.
Rev. Henry Kingsmill, A.M.
Rev. John Lewis Moore, A.M.
Rev. Qeo, Sidney Smith, A.M.
Rev. Jas. Heuthorn Todd, A.M.

Public Examiners for the year.
Classics,
Rev. Jos. H. Singer, D.D.
Rev. Thos. Gannon, D.D.
Rev, J, B. Chapman, A.M.

Erasmus Smithes Mathematics, — Fras.
Sadleir, D.D.

' Nat. Philosophy, — Hum-
phry Lloyd, A.M.

Dr, Andrew^s Astronomy, — W. Hamil-
ton, A.M.

Abp, Whaiely's Pol, Economy, — Mount.
Longfield, LL.D.

Anatomy and Surgery. — Jas. Macart-
ney, M.D.

Chemistry,— Fras, Barker, M.D.

Botany. — Wm, Allmar, M.D.

Natural History (Lecturer). — Whitley
Stokes, M.D.

French and German, — Chas. WilH-
mier, LL.D.

Italian and Spanish, — Evasio Radice.
LL.B.

Public Examiners for the year.

Science,

Rev. J. L. Moore, A.M.
Rev. Thos. Lubv, A.M.
Rev. G. S. Smith, A.M.

Logics and Ethics, at the Decree Ex"

amination,
Mountiford Longfield, LL.D,
Rev. S. J. M'Clean, A.M.
Rev. Jas. H. Tood, A.M.

THE

QUARTERLY

JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

THE YORKSHIRE INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF AND

DUMB, AT DONCASTER.

In a report of the Birmingham Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb, recently published, appeared a statement that the
number of deaf-mutes in England and Wales alone was not
less than eight thousand. This statement was noticed in
many of the London and provincial newspapers, and was re-
ceived in some parts of the country with discredit. From
various sources of information, whose accuracy can no longer
be disputed, it is ascertained that the proportion of deaf and
dumb persons in South Britain is one in seventeen hundred,
which, with an aggregate population of fourteen millions,
fully establishes the correctness of the Birmingham Report.
Returns, in fact, have been procured in various parts of the
kingdom on which this proportion is founded. The propor-
tion throughout Europe is 13^.

With such a fact as this resting on unimpeachable evidence,
the situation of these helpless beings, in respect to moral cul-
ture and improvement, becomes a subject of important and
anxious investigation. The difficulty of addressing instruc-
tion to minds shut out from the ordinary means of inter-
course entails miseries upon this unhappy portion of the com-
munity which cannot be averted by the most tender parental
solicitude.

Cut off from almost all communication with the world, the
mind so bereft of companionship is apt either to sink into im-
becility, or to become subject to the development of headstrong
and hurtful passions. Without the checks of knowledge and
religion, and too frequently spoiled by injudicious indulgence,
the temper grows ungovernable, and fits of violence and
spleen give a frightful and melancholy aspect to the cha-
racter. This is the common condition of the poor deaf-mute,
without the benefit of that peculiar training which he can
rarely receive in the bosom of. his family ; and it is from the
consideration of this fact that public institutions^ whose

Jan.— April, 1834. „_ O

194 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

object is to supply by other means the loss of those organs
through which knowledge is commonly conveyed to the
mind, have received such splendid encouragement from the
enlightened and the charitable, in all Europe^ in North
America, and lately in British India.

Most truly has Dr. Johnson described deafness as the
^ most desperate of human calamities.' With what class of
persons can we compare the uneducated deaf and dumb?
Not with the idiot, nor the maniac : their deprivation is that
of reason, a deprivation frequently more afSicting to their
friends than to themselves. In the very possession of reason,
the deaf and dumb are more pitiably afflicted than these
outcasts, inasmuch as they have a sensibility to something
higher than they can attain, a desire never to be gratified, a
light within which flashes and gleams at times for a mo-
ment, until it languishes for want of something to feed the
flame. It has often been said^ that blindness is a greater
misery than deafpess. The reason for this popular opinion
is sufficiently obvious. Blindness claims a readier sympathy
than deafness : the one is silent and often retiring, the
other can tell its tale of calamity, by which a mind endued
with sensibility cannot fail to be deeply interested ; nor is it
until the contrast between these two calamities receives more
than a superficial attention, that the heavier privations of
deafness are discovered and understood. We then perceive
that the ear is a ready inlet to the mind of the blind, and
that a language is already framed in which the blind man
can communicate his ideas, and by means of which the most
useful parts of knowledge can be conveyed to him in return.
But the deaf-mute has acquired no language. A few rude
signs, expressive of his physical wants, are the extent of his
commerce with his species, until his mind has been developed
and informed by a long and tedious process of instruction^
through the medium of the eye ; and this instruction, in the
first instance, must be simplified to the very last degree.
Even when educated, the deaf and dumb person can never
occupy that station in social life which is occupied by the
blind. Every topic of interest is easily communicated to the
blind ; but to the deaf, much of the enjoyment which results
from mingling with society is unappreciated, because unfelt,
— unfelt, because he is often a stranger to the more refined
pleasures of social intercourse. We speak of the deaf and
dumb as they have been, and as they are generally educated 5
we by no means wish to pronounce it to be impossible to fit
them for enjoying, and even for being useful in society. We
know that much has been already done, and that more is
being done at present than was ever attempted before ^ and

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 195

we confidently anticipate the time when a due proportion of
the deaf and dumb will be raised from their forlorn condition
to an eminence which will be at once grateful to them^ and
honourable to their instructors. We have spoken of the
difficulty of approaching their minds compared with that of
communication with the blind ; we see that this difficulty
almost vanishes in the case of the latter ; while in that of the
deaf it cannot be overcome but by the most patient and per-
severing labour.

The magnitude of the obstacles to the mental cultivation
of the deaf and dumb was doubtless the consideration which
prevented many philosophical minds from encountering the
labour^ even after they had ascertained the practicability of
such cultivation. The general spread of inquiry, especially
during the present century, has brought more accurate in-
formation respecting the state and numbers of the deaf and
dumb ; the result of which has been to call forth the sym-
pathy of the public for their relief : and although the provision
which is at present made for them is by no means commen-
surate with the object to be accomplished, there is reason to
expect that more ample measures will soon be taken for re-
moving as far as possible the moral and physical evils at-
tendant, upon this deplorable calamity. Benevolent minds
have been awakened to this duty in our own country^ among
whom, the late Rev. John Townshend, the founder of the
London Institution, deserves especial notice, as the first in-
dividual who effected the extension of education to the indi-
gent deaf and dumb. The imitators of this good and great
man in other parts of the kingdom, whose names are recorded
in the memory of some hundreds of pupils, are the late Dr.
de Lys, of Birmingham ; Dr. Orpen, of Dublin ; Mr. Bate-
man, of Manchester ; and Mr. Comer, of Liverpool. In York-
shire, where an institution for the deaf and dumb has sprung
up within a very few years, may be found another gentleman
whose name must be ranked with the above benefactors to
this class of sufferers : it is the name of its first promoter
and honorary secretary, the Rev. W. C. Fenton, whose bene-
volence and untiring zeal have given it prosperity as well as
existence.

As this institution, from its locality in a populous and
wealthy district, and the success which has attended its esta-
blishment, will furnish us with some materials suitable to the
purpose we have in view in this paper, we propose to take a
survey of its origin^ history, and internal management, and
to explain the system of instruction there pursued. One of
our objects in doing this, is to diffuse a knowledge of all

196 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

useful experiments in education, in order that similar insti-
tutions may from their commencement be assisted by the
experience of others who have gone before them, and so be
enabled to profit by what has been found successful, &nd
warned on those points wherein their predecessors have
failed.

In the early part of the year 1829, the attention of the
county of York was drawn to the establishment of an insti-
tution for the education of the deaf and dumb. 1 his institu-
tion originated, as we have stated, with Mr. Fenton, a clergy-
man residing in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, who soon
succeeded in bringing the object under the notice of the
principal nobility of the county. The Archbishop of York, the
late Earl Fitzwilliam, the Earl of tiarewood, and the present
Elarl Fitzwilliam, were among the earliest patrons of the pro-
jected institution. Each of these noblemen gave liberal
donations ; that of the late Earl Fitzwilliam was 500/. So
patronized in its commencement, the object met with support
in all quarters wherever applications were made, and large
sums of money were voluntarily contributed to its funds. At
a public meeting held in Doncaster, in March, 1829, which
was kindly attended by Mr. Vaughan, the master of the Man-
chester Institution, with some of his pupils, in order to show
that the education of the deaf and dumb was not a visionary
idea, a committee was appointed, and it was at once deter-
mined to open an institution as soon as the preliminary ar-
rangements could be completed. In the mean time it was
thought desirable to obtain for the intended institution the
sanction of the Grand Jury, then about to assemble at York.
By means of an active member of the committee, the subject
was introduced to those gentlemen, — a proceeding which was
altogether judicious, as the institution was thus made known
to that part of the community from which it was to derive
much of its permanent support, namely, the county gentry.
At this period the restoration of York Minster occupied
the public mind, and the committee thought proper to defer
to the suggestion of the Archbishop, and to commence the
institution in rented premises, rather than to solicit donations
for the erection of a suitable building.

A part of Eastfield House, on the north side of the Don-
caster race-course, was therefore obtained, and in November,
1829, fifteen boys were admitted. The institution was placed
under the superintendence of the present head master, Mr.
Charles Baker. By having spent some years as assistant
master at Birmingham, under M. du Puget, who had been
educated by Pestalozzi, the system of that eminent man be-^

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 197

came in some degree familiar to him. At the same time Mr.
Baker does not profess to conduct the Yorkshire Institution
on Pestalozzian principles. He acknowledges himself to be
too little acquainted with those principles to make any such
pretensions^ though aware of their value and of their appli-
cability to a great extent in the education of the deaf and
dumb.

The Yorkshire Institution was not founded altogether on
the principle of a gratuitous provision. A sum of 2s, 6d.
per week is required from the parents of each pupil^ or from
the parishes to which they belong. The income of the in-
stitution from all sources was about 400/. per annum at its
commencement. The means by which the income has been
increased to its present amount deserve particular notice, as
the same means have since been employed with similar suc-
cess by some of the other provincial schools for the deaf and
dumb: we allude to public examinations of the pupils in
neighbouring towns. Before the Yorkshire Institution had
been established six months^ several public examinations had
taken place in various divisions of the county. In the more
populous towns a lecture was delivered explanatory of the
condition of the deaf and dumb, and the methods by which
their minds and affections might be cultivated ; but the ex-
hibition of the children themselves, and their acquirements,
even in the short space of time mentioned^ were always found
the best exemplification, as well as the most efficient proof,
of the excellence of the charity. After these examinations,
no one doubted that deaf-mutes had powers capable of im-
provement ; and this was sufficient. Subscriptions and con-
tributions flowed in from every quarter.

In July, 1830^ the number of children under instruction
was increased to thirty-two, — twenty boys and twelve girls.
The annual funds at this time amounted to about 8002. ; and
the building fund was considerably augmented.

The purchase or erection of a suitable edifice for the per-
manent establishment of the institution occupied the com-
mittee during the year 1831, at the expiration of which it
was finally determined to purchase the whole of Eastfield
House, which was offered to them along with three acres of
land for 3000/. No site could have been found more open
and salubrious. A more convenient building might have
been erected, but it would have been at a great additional
expense, which might have crippled the operations of the in-
stitution for years. The whole outlay amounted to 3200/.,
including the alterations, of which sum about 360/. was ad-
vanced from the general fund to be restored at some future

196 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

period. The great desideratum in the building is a room
BuiBciently large for a school-room. With such an addition
to the premises, the accommodation would be ample enough
for one hundred children. As soon as possession of the above
purchase was obtained, the number of children was increased
to fifty. The annual income arising from subscriptions alone
then amounted to little short of 1000/. This rapid increase
of funds had not been obtained without great exertions ;
among which must be particularly specified the periodical
examinations of the pupils.

Another advantage attending such examinations in difi^erent
towns, is the publicity given to these institutions, by which
parents, who might otherwise never know the fact, are in-
formed that such a public provision exists for the mitigation
of these organic defects. £ven with this publicity, instances
are sometimes discovered of deaf and dumb persons having
grown up without instruction, even in the neighbourhood of
such institutions. The recurrence of such cases calls for
some further exertions on the part of the public to dissemi-
nate an account of deaf and dumb institutions amongst that
class of society who are most likely to want such assistance,
and least likely to know where and how to obtain it.

Various causes operate to prevent a larger number of deaf
and dumb children from receiving the benefits of education
in so populous a county as Yorkshire ; but of a population
of several hundreds deprived of hearing, and consequently
dumb, it must require explanation why no more than fifty
children enjoy the benefit of instruction.

1st. None under eight years of age, nor above fourteen,
can be admitted into the institution.

2d. A proportion of the deaf and dumb are diseased, and
some to such a degree as to be unfit objects for an institution.

3d. Another class whose names swell the statistics of the
deaf and dumb are not deaf, but only dumh, being idiots.

4th. Those who are not absolutely idiots, but who are
palpably deficient in intellect, are not considered proper
objects for an institution avowedly supported for intellectual
education.

5th. Some parents are so attached to their offspring la-
bouring under physical infirmities, as to be unwilling to part
with them.

6th. Many parents of deaf and dumb children, who are
anxious to secure for them the mental and moral advantages
of education, are yet too poor to make the required weekly
payment. In such cases the parishes to which the children
belong often defray the entire charge for the clothing and in-

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb^ 199

struction of such children ; but in some instances the parishes
refuse this aid.

The last difficulty^ here alluded to^ it has been thought
should be removed by a legislative enactment requiring parish
officers to defray the expenses attendant upon the instruction
and care of the deaf and dumb poor, on the principle upon
which a provision is made for other paupers labouring under
severe bodily infirmities. The policy of such a measure is
perhaps doubtful ; but the claims of the deaf and dumb, it is
hoped, will not be overlooked whenever the subject of national
education is brought under the notice of the legislature. Both
humanity and policy seem to dictate but one course to parish
officers. If their deaf and dumb are educated^ they are surely
less liable to become chargeable to the public than if they con-
tinue in ignorance without the power of receiving or commu-
nicating information on the commonest circumstances of life.
It would be vain to expect any proficiency in manual labour
in these objects of our sympathy while the main inlets to in-
struction are closed ; and their dispositions^ like their under-
standings^ for want of culture, produce bad instead of good
fruits. Many facts might be adduced to confirm this statement^
but it needs no further illustration : uneducated^ the deaf ana
dumb are almost levelled with the brute creation ; educated^
they are raised to the proper dignity of their nature.

To confirm some of these statements, we may refer to the
experience of the Yorkshire Institution. Since its com-
mencement in 1829, seventy-three children have been ad-
mitted, of whom twenty-three have been removed. Of this
number, ^t;c were in the institution only a few months, being
found so deficient in intellect as to be incapable of improve-
ment, although capable of doing something for their living in
manual occupations of the simplest kind. Their friends were
advised to put them instantly to such occupations. Four
remained in the institution about three years, improving to
a certain point, beyond which it seemed impossible for them
to advance. These pupils were adapted for some of the more
ordinary trades. Four others had attained an age at which
it was thought desirable for them to leave school, particularly
as they were capable of earning their livelihood. Ten were
withdrawn because their parents could not affi)rd to make the
required payment of 2s, 6rf. per week, in addition to the loss
of the little services rendered by these children in their
families, in all which cases the, parish officers refused to ad-
vance the payments demanded by the institution. In addition
to the above number, ten other applicants for admission have
been excluded from the operation of the same cause ; making

200 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

twenty who in the course of four years have been denied all
chance of instruction^ from the extreme poverty of the ap-
plicants^ or the ilUadvised economy of the guardians of parish
funds. But while it is painful to record such instances of
short-sighted policy, it is pleasing to dwell upon those of an
opposite nature, — where parishes most cheerfully contribute
the necessary means for aiding the education of these children
of affliction. Of such enlightened liberality, the parish of
Leeds affords a noble example. This parish contributes to-
wards the maintenance of the deaf and dumb children belong-
ing to it, in all cases where the parents are unable to do so.

The system pursued in some institutions makes the in-
struction and board of their inmates entirely gratuitous, but
there are objections to this principle of relief, of which one,
not the least obvious, is, that parishes are thus relieved of a
burden which is properly their own ; while in other cases,
parents who can well afford to pay for the instruction of their
offspring too willingly receive the boon which waits only for
their acceptance. Fifty pupils, at only 2^. Gd. per week each,
(which is the lowest payment, and is required in all cases^)
produce about 30U2. per annum — a considerable addition to
the funds of any institution which is not over-prosperous,
besides which it has the recommendation of being obtained in
a most unexceptionable manner. Those parents who caii
afford to do so, pay a larger sum towards the education of their
children, varying according to their circumstances.

The objection which is most strong against the system
pursued in the Yorkshire Asylum, is the fact of twenty de-
serving and proper objects having been excluded from its
advantages, while there is room within its walls for their
accommodation. When parishes refuse their assistance in
such cases of distress, it is a subject worthy of the best con-
sideration how far it is desirable for the committee to deviate
from their general rule in favour of such applicants.

These preliminary observations will serve to throw some
light upon the numbers and condition of the deaf and dumb.
We now approach the subject of their instruction, the general
principles of which have been already stated in the Sixth
Number of this Journal. The ground-work is somewhat
similar in most institutions ; the end proposed is uniformly
the same — to impart language, and fill the minds of the pupils
with knowledge. The means pursued to effect this end differ
considerably, and these differences form the basis of the
various systems.

The natural language of the deaf and dumb is a language
of signs. To improve and perfect this language^ to make it

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 201

the vehicle for communicating knowledge, and for inter-
changing thought, has been a favourite object with many
instructors. Signs may be divided into three classes : first,
natural signs ; secondly, arbitrary signs ; and thirdly, metho-
dical signs; the last partaking of the character of the other
two. Natural signs are the ordinary language of the un-
educated deaf and dumb ; arbitrary signs have their origin
with system-makers; methodical signs have the fault of
being the ideas of the teacher, which may be imitated by the
pupil without being understood, just as a native of England
might repeat after another person the words of a foreign
language unintelligible to him. All these signs, more or
less modified, are used in the instruction of the deaf. Some
institutions adopt arbitrary signs to the exclusion of natural
signs ; others make methodical signs the means of commu-
nicating ideas j some few profess to reject signs altogether;
while by others they are employed in a very subordinate
degree, to be banished as soon as their place can be supplied,
though but imperfectly, by language.

Speech^ or artificial articulation^ is another medium of
intercourse with the deaf and dumb^ and it is a valuable
auxiliary in their education. There are but few, especially
if they are taught early in life, whose vocal organs will not
yield to the well-directed efforts of the teacher. As with
respect to signs, so there are various opinions among in-
structors as to the desirableness of making articulation* and
reading on the lips, a part of the education of the deaf and
dumb. In some institutions speech is rejected; in others it
is made the main instrument of imparting ideas ; in some it
i^ used only for conveying words ; and in others speech is
used simultaneously with signs.

The figuring of objects, as in drawings is sometimes made
a matter of great importance. It speaks directly to the eye,
and may be made of great service during the period al-
lotted for instruction, and in some cases in after life.

Dactylology y or the ftnger-alphabetj is one of the most
obvious and important helps in the education of deaf-mutes ;
nevertheless, there are some schools on the Continent which
reject its assistance. Writings which is most nearly allied
to the above process of finger-spelling, is used in all institu-
tions without exception ; indeed, it seems almost the only
vehicle of which all teachers are content to avail themselves :
for however some of them may wish to exclude signs^ yet
there will occur instances when their help must be solicited.

The means at present employed at the Yorkshire Institu-
tion are natural and explanatory signs, dactylology, and
writing. One or other of these means is used, be it observed.

202 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

for the communication of every thing — knowledge in the
school — directions out of it ; the end in view being to lead the
children to understand language — the English language, and
to make themselves understood in it. The conductor is fa-
vourably disposed to articulation wherever the vocal organs
• arc flexible, and the pupil shows no unaptness for its acquire-
ment. No acquisition can be more useful if the speech can
be made intelligible. But its utility is much greater as a
rapid vehicle for the conveyance of lessons to the pupil, than
as an ordinary means of communication ; the expression upon
the lips of the speaker being required to be so much more dis-
tinct and full than could possibly be adopted in conversation
without considerable care and practice.

Drawing as an art has never been pursued in the institution
at Doncaster^ for various reasons. It would add considerably
to the expense ; and as most of the pupils are from agricultural
districts or manufacturing towns, where drawing is not much
in demand, its acquisition would not materially benefit their
future life. At the same time much value is to be attached to
it as a means of development.

The hours, allotted to school are, in the summer, seven
hours each day, and in the winter six and a- half ; other em-
ployments occupy the hands of the pupils out of school-hours,
which will be spoken of hereafter.

At the opening of a deaf and dumb establishment^ too
many pupils should not be admitted at once. In Yorkshire
not fewer than ten, and as many as twenty, have been re-
ceived at one time into the institution. The first admissions
into a new establishment ought never to exceed ten. These
are as many as a master will be able to manage without as-
sistance. After six months, ten other pupils may be added ;
by which time, with the aid of those who have become ini-
tiated, he will control and keep occupied the twenty, with
more ease to himself than he did the first ten. Wherever a
large number of pupils is contemplated, a youth of pleasing
manners and liberal education would be found useful as an
assistant from the commencement.

The curiosity shown by the older pupils respecting the
new-comers, on the day of an admission, is often exceedingly
entertaining. The various novelties in the school-room, and
other parts of the establishment, are explained to them, some-
times with no ordinary pains and politeness, especially if the
new pupils show an inquisitive and lively disposition. The
elder pupils, warned by past experience that some sullen or
vicious spirit may attempt to steal away, keep their eyes con-
stantly upon those of suspicious appearance, to prevent their
escape^ and give the first intimation of any such manifestation.

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 203

At the first outset of an institution, tlie master has to keep a
vigilant watch over his inexperienced pupils. At later ad-
missions^ he has all the assistance of those who, halting passed
through the same ordeal, are willing to exercise the necessary
vigilance. All the knowledge which the first pupils possess
must have proceeded directly from the master. As future
additions are made to the inmates of the house, knowledge is
obtained on various subjects from the intercourse of the pupils
with one another, the result of which is mutually beneficial.
A pupil coming from a mining district, by the help of his
natural signs, is able to communicate ideas on a subject
which, perhaps, the others know nothing about. In return,
they who have received only the very elements of instruction
are able to repay the new comer witn ideas to which he will
have been a stranger till that time. This interchange of ideas
is encouraged by teachers, for reasons which are sufficiently
evident. Besides, as judicious teachers do not pretend, even
in the presence of their pupils, to be more than learners, they
will find it very interesting to allow an intelligent pupil to
communicate any knowledge which his experience may have
furnished. Nor will a discreet instructor fail to express his
pleasure on such occasions, even though the subject illus-
trated be commoiiplace. But the great benefit resulting
from such intercourse with each other and with the teacher
is, that the teacher is thereby informed what are the powers
of his pupils, and instructed how to turn those powers to
account in directing their future education.

No sooner are the pupils received into the school, than
the work of instruction commences. Objects are pointed out
to them, the names of the objects are written down, and at
the same time the objects themselves are described by natu-
ral signs. The pupils readily acknowledge a similarity be-
tween the sign and the object, but they do not assent to any
likeness between them and the written word. It is only
by seeing that the object is recognized in the word, not only
by their teacher, but by every person who cart be conveniently
appealed to, that they perceive that ' ivords, by common con-
sent,* represent objects. This knowledge they attain, not
by the medium of any rule, but practically. It would be
needless to enlarge upon this part of the instruction of the
deaf and dumb, since it is precisely the practice instituted by
Sicard, and described in a former number of this Journal.

This method of commencing the teaching of the deaf and
dumb, appears preferable to their instruction at the outset
in dactylology. The acquisition of the alphabet on the
fingers, and the formation of the common written letters
oh the slate, are a dreary task for a beginner, often taking

204 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. ^

many days, and in some instances weeks, and even months,
to achieve ; while Sicard's plan is full of life and in-
terest, and not only operates upon the mind, but also keeps
the body actively employed. At intervals the children sit
down to their slates to imitate the forms of the written
words which have been made known to them, and in
very many instances they learn to write short words as
soon as they would learn to make letters. With regard
to the finger alphabet, it is not necessary that time should be
spent upon it, either by teacher or pupil, except in the case
of very dull or very volatile pupils ; generally they will learn
it by their constant communication with the more advanced
classes. Three out of fifteen pupils admitted into the York-
shire Institution, last August, bad to be taught the finger
alphabet by personal attention ; the other twelve learned it
out of school hours by associating with the elder pupils. In
the selection] of words for beginners two rules are observed :
1st, that they shall be names of objects with strongly marked
characteristics, so that the signs for them may be easily re-
cognized ; 2nd, that the words shall be short, in order that
the combined letters may be better remembered, and more
easily imitated on the slate. Such words as the following
are examples of first lessons; ass^ bee, sun, fox^ owl, frog.
Whenever the real object cannot be exhibited, a picture of
it is placed before the class.

The exercises in this first step of instruction are very
animating. We will now suppose that some twenty or thirty
words have been acquired. The teacher has a black tablet
before the class, on which the words are very distinctly writ-
ten with chalky and the objects themselves, or pictures of them^
are around him. The effect of the lesson now depends upon
the expressiveness of the signs which pass between the
teacher and pupils. When speaking of a sign or signs, ^
we mean shapes of objects figured in the air, denoting the
size and other qualities, the motions and positions, of objects.
The teacher makes a sign, we will suppose, of a frog,
in which sign its shape and its mode of leaping are de-
scribed. A child points to the object or its picture. The
teacher points to the picture of this or of some other object ;
another child makes the sign for the object. The teacher
points to a word upon the tablet ; a child points to the object
it represents, or to the picture of it. The teacher points to
an object, or the picture of one ; a child points to the word
which represents it. The teacher makes a sign, requiring
a child to point to the word which stands for it ; he then
points to a word, requiring the child to express it by a sign.
Might not much of this, or even the whole of it, be introduced

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 205

into our infant schools ? When the finger alphabet has been
acquired, a similar exercise to the above is introduced in
connexion with spelling the words, the teacher sometimes
spelling, and the children signing, or the teacher signing or
showing objects, and the children spelling or writing.

All these modes of exercising the pupil are good. After
the teacher is satisfied that the child comprehends that pic-
tures and signs represent objects, and that words again repre-
sent such objects, he goes on teaching other substantives until
the pupil is familiar with the written representation of most
common things. The plan by which this end is attained differs
in different institutions. That recommended by Mr. Baker is
to class all the objects in the material world under two divisions
— NATURE and ART ; the former to be subdivided into animals,
vegetables, and minerals, and these again into genera, species,
and even varieties of the larger animals. Under the division
Art, the subdivision will comprehend all trades and artificial
productions. It will by no means be necessary to retard a
pupil's progress, the first or even the second time of going
through the series of lessons, by teaching words of unfrequent
occurrence. Such words may be conveyed to the pupil at a
future period ; or if the lessons are accessible to him, either
in manuscript or in a printed form, he will probably ac-
quaint himself with them ; and though these lessons may
be produced in a scientific form, they may be kept free from
scientific terms. In the pictures of trades, which should
commence with the most ordinary and advance to the
most complex arts of life, every object made by man will be
brought under the eye of the pupil in its proper place.
Tables and sofas will be seen in the shop of the cabinet-maker ;
knives, razors, scissors, &c., in that of the cutler. Such a
series of pictures would be a perfect treasure for the instruc-
tion of the deaf and dumb, and would be scarcely less avail-
able in the National, Lancasterian, and Infant systems of edu-
cation ; and indeed in the early education of the children of all
classes. A good set of pictures of natural objects is also
much wanted, which should be executed as far as possible on
a scale showing their relative proportions. The lessons con-
nected with trades would commence with the names of the
materials used, the articles manufactured, and the principal
tools employed. A copious list of substantives would be thus
furnished. The next lesson, on the properties of such objects,
illustrates the adjective. The nature of neuter, active, and
passive verbs, is then explained, and afterwards the more
difficult parts of language. A similar series of lessons would
accompany the pictures on natural history. Many names of
ftubstances would occur in the course of such a series of les-

206 Yorkshire Imtitution for the Deqf and Dumb.

sons^ which no explanations could render intelligible. Speci-
mens of such things should therefore be procured, if prac-
ticable, for the elucidation of the lessons. At the Yorkshire
Institution there is a small collection of animal, mineral^
and vegetable substances, for this purpose; and if children are
to gain ideas as well as words, such a collection should be
attached to every school, particularly of minerals, and other
substances which cannot well be represented by drawings.
We have dwelt upon this part of our subject, because we
think it suitable for general adoption.

Grammar is best taught by a series of lessons so framed as
to illustrate all the parts of speech, and to comprise every
class of words in the language. This method is preferable
to the dry definitions of grammarians^ which never convey
any valuable knowledge to children, because they are not
understood.

After the specific names of objects have been conveyed to
the pupils, generic words are taught ; these are more difficult
than the preceding. It is not easy to make children gene-
ralize, unless by means of exercises which have this particular
object in view. Tabular forms similar to the following are
employed at the Yorkshire Institution : —

Horse

&c.
Raven

&c.
Shark

&c.
Viper -

&c.
Wasp

&c.
Elm .

&c.
Heath -

&c.
Gold -

&c.
Chair -

&c.
Grate

&c.
Hat

&c.
Bread -

&c.

- beast - animal - creature - being - object

- bird

animal

creature - being - object

- fish - animal - creature - being - object
reptile - animal - creature - being - object

- insect - animal - creature - being - object

tree

shrub

metal

plant - creature -

being

object

plant - creature - being - object
mineral - creature - thing - object

furniture - vegetable substance - thing - object
- furniture - mineral substance - thing - object

clothing

animal substance - thing - object

food - vegetable substance - thing - object

Yarhhire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 207

By these simple means, generic terms are acquired, and
many of the children so taught have a clearer understanding
of the value of such words than many who can both hear
and speak.

The teaching of the indefinite article, the formation of the
plurals, regular and irregular, and the office of demonstrative
and possessive pronouns, and cardinal numbers, immediately
follow the napies of objects. These are not taught in an
isolated and unconnected manner; they are combined with the
words which have been previously taught, care being taken
that the idea is conveyed simultaneously with the conven-
tional sign for it. We may suppose a handful of peas to be
taken into the school-room, (objects which the pupils do not
commonly see about them being more attractive than slates,
pencils, &c., which are always at hand ;) one pea is separated
from the rest, to which the teacher calls the attention of the
class ; he writes upon the tablet a pea, shows the pea and
holds up one finger ; he next shows the other peas, or part
of them, and vfritefipeas opposite to the singular, thus : —

a pea

peas

a dog

dogs

&c.

my slate

our slates

&c.

When the plural is written, instead of holding up one fin-
ger, he holds up all the fingers of one hand, and moves them
backwards and forwards, to express that there are many. If
there are several children in the class, it is probable that he
will be anticipated in this latter sign by some one of them,
who will thus show that he has been accustomed to such a
sign, and perfectly comprehends it. The teacher will proceed
with other examples, all of which will be written on the
tablet in succession. A short time serves to convey this idea
to a class. Irregular plurals are so arbitrary in their forma-
tion, that they can only be taught by distinct explanations,
and retained by an effort of memory. Some curious but at
the same time pleasing mistakes are committed by every suc-
cession of new pupils in learning the irregular plurals —
pleasing because they show how soon children begin to rea-
son from analogy. After having been shown that the oo in
toothy foot, goose, make the plural teeth, feet, geese, they
will write the plural of book, beek; and discovering that

206 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

mouse changes in the plural to mice, they will give hice as
the plural of house^ making regular plurals irregular, and vice
versd. These trifling difficulties are soon removed by watch-
ful attention. Cardinal numbers are taught by the arithmo-
meter or bead-table, and by other visible objects. In
this branch of learning the pupils have to remember the
combinations of letters, as well as the figures which express
the different numbers; and, as a simple exercise in number,
they are set to count the panes of glass, the nails, &c., about
the school-room, or the grains in a handful of com.

Adjectives, ordinal numbers, neuter verbs, and active
verbs, are the next stages in the tuition of the deaf. The
nature of the adjective may be conveyed to the mind of
the pupil in a variety of ways. Sicard's ingenious plan is
adverted to in a former article on the Education of the
Deaf and Dumb. A process somewhat similar is employed in
most institutions. The intuitive principle is of great advan-
tage in every part of instruction where it can be brought into
action. The teaching of adjectives is much helped by con-
trasts. Two objects of the same name, but of opposite quali-
ties, are put before the eyes of the pupil, who is required to
express by signs their distinctive properties. As he describes
these, the words answering to the description are written
down on the tablet along with the name of the object.
Through a long list of adjectives the same course is followed;
and it is pleasing to observe the growth and expansion of the
mind, in the production even of such disjointed fragments of
sentences as a thick booky a thin book ; a long ladder, a
short ladder^ &c. The ordinal numbers are treated as other
adjectives ; but they are never acquired, at least in this insti-
tution, without being confounded for a considerable time with
the cardinal numbers.

The participle of the neuter verb is the next technicality of
language which is to be made intelligible. As in the former
lessons, the first examples of participles are taken from real
actions. There would be some danger of confusing the mind
of the pupil here, if care was not taken to show him, at the
commencement, the difference between the participle and
the adjective, viz., that the former is a mere state of beiwg,
liable to change ; while the latter is a quality inherent in the
object. If the distinction be not made perfectly clear, such
expressions as a running horse, a flying fly, would be pro-
duced instead of a horse running, a fly flying. The parti-
ciple of the neuter verb is next connected with the verb to be,
which produces a short sentence, in which the auxiliary is
presented in its simplest form, that horse is eating, this
cow is standing. Sentences are also framed in this stage of

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 209

tuition from the tabular form of generic names by the inser-
tion of the auxiliary verb^ as the ho7*se u a beast.

Personal pronouns may be now introduced. / am a boy.
Thou art a many They are noisy children, in which the
different persons of the auxiliary verb are brought into use
with their distinctive pronouns^ and the sentences are length-
ened by the introduction of expressions which have been pre*
yiously taught.

Active verbs occupy the next place in the series of lessons.
These are not taught as solitary words^ but in their con-
nexion with words and phrases already known. The object
intended to be acted upon is before the class ; the agent or
subject of the verb is also before them. Sentences are ax:ted
before them, something like the following: This boy is
stuffing a bird. The second class are writing their lessons,
Thai tall man is whipping a little dog, I am holding a
pointer, &c.

The order in which these sentences should be conveyed to
the pupil by signs is an interesting object of inquiry^ as it
involves the question of the order of the natural language of
the deaf and dumb. That adopted in tliis school is to present
the agent, with its modifiers, if any, first ; the object, with its
modifiers, second ; and the verb, with its auxiliary, last. Thus
a sentence would be communicated in the following order : —

1st Sign 2nd Sign 3rd Sign

Man tall that dog little a whipping is

That tall man a little dog is whipping

which is ultimately written by the pupils according to the
regular structure of our sentences.

What we have hitherto described is the work of the first
year at the Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.
Out of twenty-two children who were received in August,
1832, seventeen went through a similar course to the one
described ; in addition to which they learned to write a toler-
ably plain hand on a slate, the object with regard to writing
being, not to waste time in making the children fine writers,
but to obtain a plain and rapid handwriting. Indeed, it
may be said that the children are not taught writing ; they

are left to learn it.

It is an important inquiry, involving a principle^ of some

Jan,— April, i034. ^

210 Yorkshire Imiiiution for the Deaf and Dumb.

consequence, whether it is advisable to supply the pupils with
a large stock of words indicating objects, qualities, and
actions, or whether it is better to proceed with a small
vocabulary, without postponing the chief point of early in-
struction, namely, connected sentences. In the Yorkshire
Institution the latter principle is pursued, on the ground of
its being important that the pupils should be early brought
to express themselves in sentences, and that it is the most
simple mode of proceeding.

It would be curious, were there space in this paper for
such an analysis, to present to the reader a picture of < the
wild waste not quite without a flower* of the deaf-mute's
mind before it is brought into cultivation. In many respects,
not in all, it is analogous to an infant's. In the process of
acquiring knowledge the same course which seems natural to
one may be pursued with the other. Infants, for. instance,
who are endowed with hearing, although they commence
speech by uttering single words, soon adopt connected forms
of expression. They do not adhere to certain classes of
words, but they use all words which they are in the habit of
hearing. Though it may be necessary to instruct the deaf
and dumb in words so classed as to show them their dif-
ferent use in language, it is by no means desirable that they
should be confined to substantives till they are made ac**
quainted with the names of nearly every common object, nor
to adjectives till they have learned nearly all the qualities of
such objects. This would occupy much time, and greatly
impede their progress ; while on the other hand, if they are
speedily brought to forms of expression complete in them-
selves, and pregnant with ideas, the delay of explaining a
difficulty now and then as it occurs will be trifling and un-
important.

The lessons on which the pupils are exercised admit every
variety of subject, and are so constructed that physical facts
and operations are taught at the same time that the children
are acquiring language. A pretty accurate conception may be
formed of them from the following skeleton, numbered in the
order in which it is taught. The particles and connectives
are explained before they are embodied in these lessons.

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 21 1

Horse,

Mare,

Pony,

Foal,

Hunter,

Hackney, &c.

Head,

Ears,

Mane, &c.

Beast, Quad-
ruped, Animal,
&c.

A horse, two horses,
A mare, many mares,
A pony, three ponies, &c.

A shagg^y mane,

A fine mane,

A long mane,

A short mane,

A chestnut horse, &c.

A horse kicking,
A mare snorting,
A pony drinking,
A hackney trotting, &c.

That horse is grazing.
Those horses are galloping.
The foal is sucking, &c.

The horse is gentle.

Some horses are hard-mouthed,

My horse is strong.

Horses are gregarious, &c.

The horse is a beast,
The horse is a quadruped,
The horse is a domestic animal,
Colts are young horses, &c.

I have a horse,

Every horse has a mane and tail,
AH horses are not broken-kneed,
&c.

That horse is eating hay.
These coach-horses are pawing

the ground,
This horse is licking his knee, &c.

By this method knowledge is communicated simultaneously
with language ; and if some of the words used in the above
lessons appear to be far-fetched or somewhat approaching to
scientific terms, it should be remembered that they only
present simple ideas, for which reason they are easily commu-
nicated^ and help to furnish the mind with facts and informa-
tion. With a deaf and dumb pupil a word is never considered
hard because it is long. Such words as gregarious^ oviparous^
amphibious, &c., are descriptive of very simple ideas, and as
such are included in some of the earliest lessons.

Many of the pupils now begin to express their ordinary
wants by writing on a slate, or by spelling on their fingers.
They acquire a knowledge of such forms of expression as the
following : — Fetch a chair for this lady. Bring me a pointer*
Put a large tablet upon this easel. The boys have no soap.
The girls are scouring their bedrooms. Where is our clothes-
brush ? John has fallen down and bruised his eye.

Similar communications to these are continually passing be-
tween the pupils themselves, and between them and their
teachers. From these the beginners pick them up, and learn

212 Yorhhire Insiiiution for the Deaf and Dumb.

to apply them with greater or less accuracy, just as an infant
appropriates the language spoken in its hearing.

Besides the knowledge here described, the pupils make
other important acquisitions. The effect of good education
is to promote habits of order, feelings of love to each other
and to all men, and the performance of moral duties.
Although these duties cannot be inculcated at first by words,
they can be enforced by actions and by example, — by a
constant occupation of the pupil in body or mind, and by the
watchful eyes of those above them to detect and counteract,
as far as possible, evil tendencies. When a pupil has been
subject to such vigilance for only a few months, a gradual but
perceptible improvement invariably takes place. .The deaf
and dumb early begin to form ideas of their accountability
without any direct instruction on this point. In the school-
room-meetings for morning and evening prayer — an exercise
which is performed by the medium of signs, or by dactylology —
and from their continual intercourse with the instructed pupils,
the class of beginners perceive that there is a great and all-
directing Being ; and though their conceptions may be very
vague, yet still they are, in some measure, prepared for
religious instruction, by means of vi^ritten language, when
it is thought proper to commence this important part of
education.

The only holiday in the year at the Yorkshire Institution is
at Midsummer, at the expiration of which the new admissions
take place. This absence from the scene of their education
has always a good effect on the pupils, and more especially
on those of only one year's standing. They uniformly return
to school with pleasure. Indeed, the contrast between their
comforts there and their comforts at home cannot but make
them more sensible to the advantages of their situation, besides
the pleasure which they must derive from their extensive inter-
course among their fellows, compared with their confined
means of social communion elsewhere.

The business of instruction is recommenced with the first-
year pupils by a repetition of their preceding lessons — a
work which occupies a few weeks. The teacher then resumes
his lessons on the verbs by proceeding to explain the simple
past and the simple future tenses of the verbs to have^ to be,
and of regular verbs ; then, he passes on to the comparison
of adjectives ; adverbs derived from adjectives ; the passive
voice of verbs ; prepositions and other easy particles ; and the
definite article. Abstract substantives descriptive of physical
properties come after these.

The past and future tenses of verbs are explained, in the
first instance, by diagrams representing the days of the week.

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 213

the months^ the seasons, the days of the year. A nighVs sleep
gone (pointing backwards) represents yesterday; a nighVs
sleep to come (pointing forward) represents to-morrow ; two
to-morrows, two yesterdays, continuing to use the literal
translation of signs, meaning the day before yesterday and
the day after to-morrow, are as easily described as the nearer
periods. For the purpose of teaching present, past^ and
future time more accurately, a tablet has been provided, of
which a sketch is given. It is divided into seven compart-
ments^ and the words that are printed here are painted white
on the black ground of the tablet. Its size is 5 feet 3 inches
by 2 feet.

Three days
aj;o.

Two days
ago.

Yesterday.

To-day

To-morrow.

Two days
hence.

Three days
hence.

When this tablet is used, the name of the day (say Tuesday)
is written upon the middle compartment by the teacher; a
pupil is asked the name of the day before, viz. yesterday,
and he is desired to write it : he will probably write ** yester-
day is Monday.' The opportunity is now taken to show
him the auxiliary word which applies to the past — was.
The same course is pursued in teaching the expression of
future time, will be, until the words are correctly applied.
The compartments on the board serve to record any little
events which have taken place or which are likely to take
place. The following is a specimen of their use, at first by
the teacher, afterwards by the pupils.

Yesterday
was

Thursday, 5th of September.

All the children went to see an
archery meeting in the after-
noon.

Thomas saw a covey of

partridges fly out of the gar-
den, early in the morning.

At seven o'clock in the evening
the elder boys attended Mr.
's lecture on Astronomy.

214 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

The divided tablet, Bimple as it appears, is a most valuable
instrument in instruction. The events of to-day, expressed
in the present tense, can soon only be spoken of in the past ;
while the to-morrow spoken of to-day in the future^ occupies
its place, and in its turn becomes a yesterday.

As the pupils advance from this point, every step becomes
easier and more pleasant. Verbs passive are certainly
difficult at first. With some modifications the method pur-
sued by Sicard is generally adopted. The prepositions which
are first explained are those which can be rendered quite
sensible, as ow, in, before^ behind, which are very properly
called local prepositions by Bishop Wilkins in his Treatise
on Natural Grammar. Sometimes this class of words is
taught by a diagram^ similar to that which is given in the
above-mentioned work, or by placing real objects in the
required situations, instead of drawings. It has been re-
marked in the course of this article, that words must be
classed to show the nature and powers of those words, as well
as the similarities which exist among all words of the same
class, and their difference from every other class of words.
It must, however, be recollected that spoken language will
never be learned by such means. It is the constant use of
dissimilar words in connexion with each other, which makes
hearers and speakers understand sentences and utter them
correctly. It is the business of the instructor of the deaf
and dumb to make his pupils familiar with the construction
and use of the mother tongue in all their communications.
This is done in some institutions by articulation and reading
• on the lips ; in others, of which that in Yorkshire is one, by
writing or by dactylology. This point is particularly attended
to in the second year of the pupils' progress, and it is the
only method by which they can be made expert in the use
and ready in the application of the particles and of other
words which present no sensible idea to the mind.

No mechanical exercise of the memory is allowed in this
institution. Nothing is learned by heart ; if repetitions of
lessons are necessary, they are performed under the eye of the
teacher or one of the more advanced pupils, and at each
' repetition difficulties supposed or confessed are explained.
Not a lesson nor a line has been ^ learned by heart' since the
commencement of the institution, nor have any signs for
ideas been committed to memory without an explanation of
the ideas that such signs represent.

The lessons on Language are varied and extended during
the second part of the second year by the introduction of
printed books. The first book used for this purpose is Miss

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 315

Mayo's * Lessons on Objects.' With a few trifling modifica-
tions, which will be obvious to the teacher as he goes through
it, this book may be made very useful in the instruction of
the deaf and dumb ; and their training, which so particularly
accustoms them to observe things, their properties, &c.,will
enable them to take up the lessons quite in the spirit which
Miss Mayo recommends. Another book which is used at this
period is Mr. Baker's « Lessons on Natural Religion/ The
matter of this little work has been taught to successive classes^
and it is now published. It is the author's opinion that with all
children instruction in natural religion ought to precede that
in revealed religion. Such he finds to be the only way of
proceeding with the deaf and dumb, who, previous to instruc-
tion, have never conceived any notion of the Supreme Being ;
and his experience among hearing children convinces him that
their notions are very often vague and unsatisfactory. As these
lessons are the first direct instruction which the pupils
receive on the existence of a God, they are illustrated by
more examples than are embodied in the published work ; the
section also which explains the nature of the soul and the
operations of the mind, is considerably amplified at the time
these subjects are taught.

Arithmetic is begun in the course of the second year's
instruction; its first principles are developed from visible
objects, in the way we have already described. Counting as
high as a hundred is one of the objects of attention during
the first year. Notation is not carried much farther before
addition and subtraction are commenced. In these develop-
ments a little work entitled * Lessons on the Arithmometer,
or Bead-table/ on Pestalozzian principles, is used. So far as
the writer of this article is acquainted with that great man's
principles on the elements of number, no work illustrative of
them is so well adapted to young calculators as the one
named.

Geography forms a part of the pupil's course in his second
year. We cannot better describe the mode in which this
science is commenced than by referring to the same subject as
taught at Bruce Castle, (page 118, No. XI. of this Journal.)
By such an introduction the children understand what they are
about from the first; and, as is the case with all subjects
which they fully comprehend, they pursue it with pleasure.
When a certain knowledge of topography has been acquired,
an outline map of Yorkshire on a large scale is shown to the
pupils, and the place of residence of each is pointed out.
To impart a tolerably correct idea of relative distances, each
pupil is led to observe, as if voluntarily, the length of time he

216 Yorkshire InsiiiuHan for the Deaf and Dumb.

waa occupied in travelling from his home to the Institution.
The situation of Yorkshire on the map of England is
discovered as soon as that map is laid before them; and
places of which they may have incidentally heard are now
shown to the class, the teacher all the time encouraging them
to remark upon distances, situation, &c. The United King-
dom, Europe, the World, and the Terrestrial Globe are suc-
cessively introduced to enable the children to generalize, and
to form some idea of the size and position of the several
portions of the earth. Returning to the geography of Eng-
land, the first lessons are upon its political divisions, the
larger towns, and the productions of certain districts. Then
the physical appearances of the country are taught from
maps excluding all political boundaries. The same plan is
pursued with other countries throughout the geographical
course.

It is intended to construct a series of maps of England by
which geography shall be made the basis of much general
knowledge.

1. The mineral districts — their relationship to the manu-
facturing districts.

2. The manufacturing towns and agricultural districts.
The names of the different manufactures to be written in
the body of the map on the spot where they are carried on.

3. History and chronology. Important events to be re-
corded instead of the names of the places where they occurred.
The year to be specified.

4. Inland communication. The larger roads, rivers, and
canals to be laid down.

5. Population. The number of inhabitants to be written
on the site of counties and towns.

In confining these objects to separate maps, the pupils will
be taught to individualize, and thus their minds will be fitted
to comprehend the whole subject through the medium of its
parts. The application of these principles, combined with
those of Professor Agren, (See Journal, No. XI.,) might be
extended to other countries.

^ Models of the succeeding lessons on the Horse are here
given to illustrate the exercise on language connected with
Natural History. But it should be premised that all the
following developments in language are not gone through
during the second year, and sometimes not even in the third
year, as the more difficult tenses of verbs and many particles
require repeated explanation. It may be here stated that no
attention is paid to the technical classification of particles into
conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, &c. j they are arranged in

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 217

these lessons, according to that order in which it is supposed
they can be made most intelligible to the pupil ; those which
are found to be easiest are taught before those which are less
intelligible.

10.

The horse grazes.

The horse eats grass, hay and corn.
Grass, hay, and corn, are eaten by the horse.
The horse carries burdens and people.
Burdens and people are carried, &c.

11.

The race-horse carries his rider swiftly.
Waggon-horses draw heavy loads very slowly.
A few days ago, a coach- horse kicked a stable-boy viciously, and
the boy bled profusely, &c.

12.

I had a pony some years ago.

My horse has had a disease called the glanders, &c.

13.

Mr. Smith's colt has been shod to-day.

The bay pony will be clipped next November, then it will have
been clipped three times.

I might have been riding now if it were fine, &c.

14.
Horses sleep m stables in winter. The fetlock of the horse is
near the hoof. The shoes^are nailed on the foot. Both John Dob-
son's horses are dead.

15.

John Dobson has neither horses nor money. Sometimes a mare
lias two foals. Some horses cost little because they are blemished.
A waggon-horse is much heavier than a race- horse, &c.

16.

The strength of a horse is very great. A race-horse has been
known to run a mile in a minute — what astonishing siviftness !
Horses are valuable because they possess strength^ patience, docility^
beauty f &c.

17.
(^ short connected lesson,)

The form of the horse is elegant, and unites both strength and
swiftness. He is useful in lessening man's labour ; and whether
engaged in hunting, in battle, in drawing stately carriages or heavy
ploughs, he is obedient, &c.

218 Yorkshire Imtitutum for the Deaf and Dumb.

During the third and fourth years of instruction, deaf and
dumb pupils do not, to a superficial observer, appear to make
an improvement equally rapid with that of former years ; but
he who closely examines and compares their progress will
discover that their acquirements display more accuracy and
solidity than they ever before exhibited. He will find also
that the superficial observer, in the pleasure he felt at any
degree of advancement, charitably overlooked faults and errors
towards which he will be less kindly disposed after the novelty
of his first impressions has subsided. In the one case he will
be too lenient, in the other too severe.

Composition^ which is only encouraged during the second
year, is required during the third and succeeding years. It is
the pedometer of a pupil's progress ; it not only shows the
steps he has taken, but it points out his deficiencies in what
he is supposed to have acquired. It also shows the teacher
at this period, that his pupil still wants the compound tenses
of verbsy and the more difficult particles j and discovers the
round-about track which he takes in endeavouring to express
an abstract idea. These are the confessed difficulties in the
instruction of the deaf and dumb ; and to these parts of lan-
guage, in addition to those in which the pupil is found not to
be well-grounded, the attention of the teacher will be par-
ticularly directed during the subsequent period of education.

In developing more fully the niceties of expression for
tenses or time, the inquiry again presents itself, ^ How does
a child become acquainted with the language of its country ?'
Certainly not by the rules of grammar, nor by any philolo-
gical lectures; these are for teachers. By mingling with
society, by hearing of events referred to time past, present,
and to come, and by reading, all children acquire the forms
of speech ; but mostly by the first, as is evident from the use
they make of phrases and expressions which are current
among the persons with whom they associate. A constant
exercise in phrases embodying the compound tenses and
particles, appears to be the best method of initiating pupils
into their correct use. If events do not occur, sentences
should be framed on supposed events ; but ev^ents are certain
to occur to bring most forms of expression, and most words
of importance, into use. In this manner, the boy who is con-
stantly having such sentences as the following addressed to
him will not fail to understand them, at first, with the assist-
ance of signs, and afterwards by mere spelling or writing.

You will have been here three years next August.

This gentleman has been here an hour, he will be here an hour
longer ; he will have been here two hours, one hour hence.

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 219

He should have written his letter before one o'clock.

will have had his silver pencil-case two years next May,

&c. &c.

Methods of dissecting these tenses are used in the course
of the lessons on language during the third year ; but the
correct employment of them can only be acquired by en-
forcing on the pupils the use of dactylology or writing to
express all their desires, and by encouraging them to detail
any circumstances^ especially with reference to time, which
fall within their observation. Much has been written on the
particles by De TEpee^ Sicard, and later authors, and some
of their diagrams are used in conveying the ideas represented
by these words ; but after all, the main instrument for per-
ifecting the deaf and dumb in the use of connective words is^
practice in conversation and composition.

The books used during the third year, are Lessons on
Objects, Scripture Characters, Lessons on the Creation, and
First Lessons on Revealed Religion; the three last written
by the conductor of the Yorkshire Institution. In using
these books the class write the lesson upon their slates, read
it over^ and apply for an explanation of those words or sen-
tences which they may not comprehend. The whole lesson
is then explained to the class in mimic language ; the class
again read the lesson, and the questions annexed to it are
put to them.

The lessons on * Scripture Characters' are intended to in-
form the pupils on the leading historical facts connected with
the principal persons mentioned in the Old and New Testa-
ment. Those on the ^ Creation' are not only an exercise on
the first chapter of Genesis, but also convey much informa-
tion on the natural world, on the soul of man, and on the
attributes of God. The * First Lessons on Religion' profess
to inculcate the principles of Revelation. All lessons, what-
ever be the subject^ are given to the pupils either in the ex-
positive or the inductive form, and are followed by a series
of questions for their elucidation and development.

There is no greater impediment to the progress of the
deaf and dumb in useful knowledge, than the want of a variety
of books suited to the different periods of their education.
Such books can only be written by their instructors, as they
alone can be acquainted with the difficulties of such an un-
dertaking. It has been perhaps truly remarked, that the
publication of such books, even if they could be written in a
manner to meet the views of all teachers of the deaf and
dumb, would involve an expense which their sale would not
be likely to defray. Our view upon this question is, that

220 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

books written purposely for the deaf would be the best ele-
mentary works, if well done, to put into the hands of all
children.

* The Little Philosopher,' by Mr. Abbott, of Mount Ver-
non School, Boston, has been lately reprinted in England.
It has been introduced as a class-book for the pupils of three
years' standing at the Yorkshire Institution. Much of its
subject-matter is very good, and superior to most books of
the same nature ; but perhaps an exception may be taken to
some of its philosophy, and the form in which it is written is
objectionable. Nevertheless, as an attempt to bring down
phih)sophical truths to the minds of infants, it possesses much
merit and deserves circulation. The way in which this book
is used at the institution of which we are writing, is to re-
cast each subject in the expository form, to explain it if
necessary, and then to propose questions upon it for the ex-
amination of the pupils. Catechisms in themselves are bad
things, and though we would not think of degrading ^ The
Little Philosopher' to the level of Pinnock, yet there is too
much of the catechismal spirit throughout the book. Ques-
tions too difficult to be answered without some knowledge of
physics are frequent in the work. We recommend to those
who may use this book, as we would do with respect to
some other elementary works, that the whole of the subject-
matter of each lesson be communicated to the pupil before
the questions are asked, and that there be no committing to
memory.

Arithmetic is proceeded with during the third year, and
the pupils are instructed in the use of the dictionary. The
latter is a great help to them in acquiring language. All the
lessons which they read are first read with this help, and they
are expected to apply for information only on those words
respecting which the dictionary is not clear and satisfactory.

The same books which are used in the third year, are con-
tinued in the fourth, in addition to which Mrs. Trimmer's
Sacred Histories and the Bible are introduced. The doc-
trines of the Christian religion, previously confined to Sunday
instruction, are now made a portion of the weekly lessons.
Geography and arithmetic are also a part of daily study; and
composition is made a subject of greater importance than
heretofore. In addition to this the children are expected
out of school-hours to read certain selections in natural his-
tory, upon which they are questioned in school ; and as they
ai'e accustomed to collect objects of interest which they may
meet with in their walks, or when they go home at the holi-
days, this part of their studies is made very interesting.

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 22 1

Even arithmetic is made subservient to the one great end
proposed to be accomplished, namely, the communication of
language and knowledge. Geographical, astronomical, sta-
tistical, and various other questions are asked to exercise the
pupil in the practice of calculation, and the facts thus ga-
thered up are by no means unimportant to children who have
such limited powers of communication with the world.

The morals of the little community within the walls of this
institution are studiously cultivated. Often do its members
arrive there with notions the most lax imaginable, and the
older they are when admitted, the worse they generally are in
tis respect ; but how can we expect it to be otherwise ? Their
parents have exercised little or no restraint over them, from
inability to communicate on any subject beyond their merest
physical wants, so that their evil propensities have grown up
with them, and are frequently manifested in their conduct.
To repair this deficiency of virtue as well as of knowledge
must be the instructor's great care. To secure this object,
it is a rule never to allow the children to be alone. An
assistant teacher is expected to be constantly among them, to
observe what is wrong, and to direct them in what is right ;
and improper conduct is commented upon in the school-room.
Thus their moral delinquencies are detected and exposed, not
for the purpose of exciting any improper feeling towards the
delinquents, but to furnish an opportunity of appealing to
their higher feelings, and to present motives which shall lead
them to do right. The result of this treatment generally is,
that in the space of a few months considerable improvement
takes place in their dispositions and habits. Parents fre-
quently observe this moral change, and indeed it will be more
perceptible to them than to those who have the daily charge
of their children.

No system of direct rewards has hitherto been pursued,
but it cannot be said that emulation has not been excited.
It is perhaps one of the most difficult considerations which
the principal of an institution has to decide, whether or not
emulation shall be a leading feature in his plans. We see
institutions around us on the two opposite principles — to all
appearance equally successful. It is undoubtedly more easy
to dispense with rewards than to dispense with punishments.
In this institution it is endeavoured to regulate the punish-
ment by the offence. Loiterers and idlers in school have their
stay there prolonged, during which prolongation of school-
hours they are kept at their lessons. Solitary confinement,
without being so solitary as to affect the nerves, and a bread
and water diet, have often been found a salutary check upon
offenders. With new pupils, whose minds are yet undeve-

222 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

loped, and who are scarcely susceptible of any higher or lower
feeling than physical pleasure or pain, recourse is had to
corporeal punishment, if after a second or third offence they
still remain refractory. After all, there are very few cases
where punishment is necessary, either among the junior or
the senior pupils, and with the latter corporeal punishment
is very rarely resorted to. Prevention is better than punish-
ment ; and ordinary vigilance on the part of teachers will
often hinder the commission of a schoolboy's ordinary of-
fences. In reference to the subject of wrong notions and
habits in deaf-mutes, great allowances must be made for
their errors, great attention and forbearance must be ex-
ercised in the work of their reformation, from the slowness
and difficulty with which moral considerations are addressed
to the mind. The first restraints must be mechanical with
them as with all little children. What they do^ and what
they avoid doing, must for a certain period stand upon no
better basis than the directions of their teachers. It is,
however, a duty which cannot be lost sight of for a day^ to
force into their poor unformed minds the reasons on which
morality is founded ; the injustice and impolicy of theft, the
bad consequences of passion, the utility of employment, &c.,
all which must accompany, if not precede, appeals to the
higher sanctions of religion.

One difficulty with the deaf and dumb, as with other chil-
dren, is to make them observe and think ; — a greater still to
fet their observations and thoughts embodied in words.
Iven pupils who sufficiently understand language to com-
prehend what is said of a subject, do not easily acquire the
power of putting their ideas on paper. The organic defects
which throw additional obstacles in the way of the deaf and
dumb^ make his progress in both the above operations slow
and imperfect. The labour required, unless it is counteracted
by activity of intellect, indisposes his mind to exertion ; and
he is too credulous, because he is too willing to take for
granted whatever is told him with anything like seriousness^
however absurd it may be.

At the time of our writing, a few of the pupils of the York-
shire Institution are entering on their fifth year. The course
of instruction laid down for that year is the continuation of
arithmetic, geography, morals, and religion, composition,
abstract ideas, and figurative language.

Throughout the whole arithmetical course, more attention
is given to the principles of the different operations than to
the attainment of the power of rapid calculation. The majo-
rity of the children acquire enough of arithmetic to carry
them through the common affairs of life. The geographical

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 223

knowledge imparted to them relates chiefly to the physical
and political geography of Great Britain. Less time is be-
stowed upon the other parts of the globe, about which a good
deal of information is incidentally acquired from their other
lessons, and from general reading.

Instruction in morals goes hand in hand with religious in-
struction, and all pains are taken to acquaint the pupils with
those great truths which affect their eternal well-being. The
results have sometimes been very pleasing. In teaching the
Gospel history, reference is made to Mimpriss's Pictorial and
Historical Map of Palestine, which is found a very valuable
instrument for imprinting facts on the minds of the pupils
in connexion with the places where they occurred. With
respect to abstract ideasy no mode of development is found
so efficient as analysis and ample illustration, aided by con-
stant recurrence to such as have been communicated. Be-
low is an example, which is one of a series of lessons prepared
on purpose to illustrate abstract ideas. But all such ideas
are not delayed till this period in the education of the chil*
dren ; those of the simpler kind, such as goodness , sin, bro^
therly love, can be readily exemplified by signs, and they
are conveyed to the mind of a child soon after instruction
commences.

SENSIBILITY.

We see, hear, feel, smell, and taste, by the help of our
senses. The body is sensible of cold, heat, motion ; the ear
is sensible of sounds ; the eye is sensible of forms, colours,
&c. ; the nose is sensible of odours ; the mouth and palate
are sensible of different tastes. The feelings or sensations of
the body are sometimes pleasant and sometimes painful. A
person who shrinks from more than ordinary heat or cold, has
great bodily sensibility. The mind knows the difference of
these feelings, but they are bodily feelings.

The mind is not sensible in the same way as the body. It
does not feel cold, heat, hardness, &c. The feelings of the
mind are joy, grief, anxiety, fear, love, hatred; the body has
no such feelings as these ; they ave mental feelings.

If we are blamed without cause, the mind is sensible of
being wronged ; the body feels no pain, but the mind is uneasy
and anxious. When such blame cannot harm us, and whei;
we believe that we have done right, if we fret and sorrow we
are foolishly sensibhy and such sensibility is improper.

If a person shows great kindness to us or to others, and
we feel that we love him in return for that kindness, we arq
sensible of bis kindness ; such sensibility is proper. The

224 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

person who receives kindaess without feeling grateful is m-
sensible to kindness.

A man who is always distressed and unhappy on witness-
ing the common sorrows and privations of mankind has too
great sensibility.

The boy who can receive continued reproofs for doing
wrong without trying to amend, is insensible to shame ; and
he who feels afflicted at every slight reproof has too much
sensibility.

From the time that pupils begin to converse with tolerable
freedom by means of natural signs, figurative language is
occasionally employed. From the circumstance of a pupil
rising up in the school to exonerate another who has been
unjustly accused, it may be shown how an aggrieved party
may be defended by words, though an actual blow be not
struck in his defence. The words are the blows on such an
occasion. An expanding flower will give opportunity to
speak of an expanding mind. Instruction may be called the
food of the mind — an analogy which will readily be recognized
by every one. Knowledge and ignorance may, in the same
way, be compared to light and darkness. Hundreds of fami-
liar examples occur in the routine of instruction which serve
to explain the metaphors with which language abounds.
Fables are also used for the illustration both of abstract
ideas and of figurative language. These fables, in addition
to their own title, have the name of the idea which they are
intended to illustrate written over them, in this way — CON-
TRIVANCE, The Crow and the Pitcher; SELFISHNESS,
The Dog and the Ox, &c. The parables of the New Testa-
ment also illustrate figurative language, as well as being
adapted to convey important religious knowledge.

A small work is very much wanted, as a school-book, on
figurative language, taking a range of illustration from the
simplest to the most complex examples, and explaining, in a
clear, intelligible way, the distinctive marks of metaphors,
fables, parables, allegories, personifications, &c. Such a
work should abound in examples rather than in dry meta-
physical rules ; some of the Abb6 Sicard's explanations are
very plain and concise^ but the generality of them are too
etymological, and better adapted for a teacher than a pupil.

For such a course of instruction as we have delineated, in-
volving the development of faculties which may evade the
unfolding touch of the teacher in the ordinary routine of edu-
cation, it cannot but appear ih^X five years are inadequate to
do justice to its various requirements, particularly when it is

Yo7*kshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 226

remembered that the mind comes in a state barren beyond
description — a wilderness at best, but too often covered with
brambles. An ordinary child three or four years old has
a large stock of ideas, compared with those of a deaf and
dumb child who has gone through even half of the period
usually allotted to instruction. It would be desirable to pro-
long this term by one year, if it could be done consistently
with the claims of other objects of the charity. A sixth
year would be more valuable in strengthening and confirming
good habits, and preparing the pupils for the world, than any
two preceding years of their course. A considerable number
of those who gain admission to deaf and dumb institutions do
not continue the whole time allowed. Out of thirty-two who
were admitted into the Yorkshire Institution during the first
two years, only eight are entering into the fifth year of their
course, and six into the fourth ; the remainder having been
withdrawn for reasons stated in a former part of this article.
The evils resulting from such withdrawals not only affect the
objects so deprived of education, but will be visible in the
revival of that ancient prejudice which represented the deaf
and dumb as little better than demi-automatons.

The examinations of the pupils are particularly entitled to
our notice. Besides the annual public examination at Don-
caster, and occasional examinations at other populous towns
in Yorkshire, there is at least one yearly examination at the
school before the committee of the institution. No prepared
questions are asked by the examiner. Those who are pre-
sent are solicited to take a part in the examination, and
frequently do so. Errors are occasionally made, but are often
corrected when the pupil is made to comprehend the ques-
tion proposed. They are more frequently errors in language,
than errors of ignorance.

An abstract of the rules of the Yorkshire Institution which
apply to the children, may perhaps not improperly be intro-
duced here : —

It is designed to be a school of industry, as well as of re-
ligious and general education.

No child can be admitted before eight, nor after fourteen
years of age.

None can remain after the age of sixteen, nor continue
more than five years from the date of admission.

Two shillings and sixpence is the weekly payment required
towards the maintenance of each child.

Children are elected by subscribers, a rule which has never
yet been called into operation, as all qualified candidates have
been received.
Jan.— APRIL; 1834. Q

226 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

Children not requiring the aid of charity^ are received on
payment of a sum fixed by the committee.

At the last annual meeting, it was agreed that children
should be admitted from any part of the Isingdom, on terms
to be fixed by the committee, — reserving ample accommoda-
tion for Yorkshire applicants.

The design originally contemplated^ of making the institu-
tion a place of manual labour in the sense generally under-
stood, nas not been acted upon. Nor can it be practicable
for the children to be taught even ' the domestic trades,'
without an extension of the term allotted for their education.
So far as the spirit of the regulation goes, it has been adopted
to a great extent. The children are trained to habits of con-
stant industry and activity, and are total strangers to list-
lessness and its evils. Moreover, the employments to
which they are subjected have the happiest effects on their
general conduct, and certainly promote cheerfulness of de-
meanour. Some institutions for the deaf and dumb are
strongly opposed to the union of labour and learning. Locke's
wise remark has received of late years full and repeated tes-
timony to its truth. Certainly, the experience of all who
have observed the effect of this union will attest that * Ex-
ercises in the body and the mind may be made the recreation
one to another.' Why not, then, turn those hours to account
which would otherwise remain unemployed, or worse than
unemployed ? The boys in the Yorkshire Institution are en-
gaged in various occupations suited to their age and their
capabilities. It is a part of their daily business to grind a
certain portion of wheat for the consumption of the house.
For this purpose the whole number of boys is divided into
three classes, each class working every third day : thus the
labour is equalized. The mill used for this purpose is a steel
mill with two handles ; two of the taller boys take hold of
the handles, to which ropes are attached and pulled by four
or six smaller boys. The operation is very simple, and the
task, though it bears no such odious name, is often accom-
plished in an hour and a half. It is constantly remarked by
those who are observant of their conduct, that the class whose
turn it may be to work at the mill are very anxious to get
through their lessons in school ; and on the contrary, that when
they have any additional employment, as copying lessons, to be
done out of school hours, their work at the mill is gone through
more rapidly. This is one proof of the beneficial tendency of
such a change of employments. When the mill was adopted,
the boys were told that the supply of flour for the house would
depend upon their labour, and it has always been supplied

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 227

without a murmur, though ihe consumption is about six
bushels per week. This mill with its dressing machine was
not procured as a source of profit to the institution, but
chiefly that the boys might have a certain portion of strong
exercise at regular intervals. The saving in consequence of
this labour cannot amount to less than 10/. annually.

The other employments for the boys are gardening, shoe
and knife cleaning, and a variety of occasional labour, such
as is necessarily connected with a large establishment. A
tailor and a shoemaker attend the institution for about one
week in every month, and the boys designed for those trades
attend each of them in the intervals of school business to
receive' instruction. With greater funds than the institution
at present commands, workshops might be erected, and two
men pursuing the above trades might be resident on the pre-
mises at a trifling additional expense, by which arrangement
many of the pupils, if retained a sixth year, might be sent
into the world well qualified to obtain a livelihood.

The employments of the girls are rather more laborious
than those of the boys. Eighteen or twenty constantly-oc-
cupied rooms have to be swept or scoured daily, as well as
all the passages and staircases in different parts of the house.
The bed-linen and table-linen washing is performed by them,
and the ironing and mangling of the other articles. These
and other occasional labours occupy most of their spare
time ; the afternoon of the day is generally spent in mending
for themselves and the house, or in making various articles
of wearing apparel for the poor, which are sold with very
little profit to friends and casual visitors to the institution.
The active employments detailed above have the best effect
on the health of the children. The institution has been
nearly free from illness from the period of its establishment.
The scrofulous afiections so common among the deaf have
very seldom assumed any unpleasant appearance, nor have
they produced any bad effects on their general health.

In the domestic arrangements of the establishment it is
worthy of remark that only two house-servants are kept, a
cook and a housemaid ; the latter to superintend the house-
hold work or to do it, if by her negligence it is left undone
by the girls. The moral deportment of the girls, their needle-
work, and the direction of the domestic part of the institution
are confided to the matron. The two assistant teachers are
the only other subordinate officers in the establishment, and
their duties are separate and distinct. Besides assisting in
the school, the senior assistant watches over the moral and
orderly demeanour of the boys when not in school ; the

Q 2

228 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

junior superintends the performance of the manual labours
out of school, preserves the general order of the lessons and
apparatus of the school-room, the workshops, and other
offices, in which duties he is assisted by the boys ; even the
least child in the establishment has some work to perform
tending to habituate him to order and carefulness.

By means of the manual operations described, the children
acquire fixed habits of industry during their continuance in
the institution, which habits will generally take any direction
their guardians may afterwards prescribe. The boys from
agricultural districts will, in many cases, but not in all,
become farm servants ; those from the manufacturing parts
will be put to the occupations of their neighbourhood, it is
the main design of the patrons of this establishment to give
the pupils such an education as will fit them for filling their
station in society with credit to themselves, and with usefulness
to others. There are few employments of which the deaf and
dumb are not capable; they make good servants, good
labourers, good artisans, but not good shopkeepers. Some
youths have been employed as ordinary clerks^ others as
copying clerks in law-offices, and a few have excelled in
painting or engraving.

The following tables will give a correct idea of the employ-
ments of each day in the fourth year of the course : —

Yorkshire InstituHon for the Deaf and Dumb. 229

.rliif

i". I.r. i -. 1 } a

fJ ff ^'J I'f ¥¥

All (be ohlldreii taWng EitrcliB.

Copying lB«Dni iato boolii. TheJunlorCtaiiln Sehoolfor
•ionally TteGlrttii Needlework »ho ueiot otbwwlge

■""■•■• ■""■'"'"■ "as'wS. '""•■■ ■-"«•-

Ten DiQuteiiUonedln ttae r««nnon foc«Hci».

ii.|4||i.j4|

2
i

Bmkfut. BojialMlll.&c., QlrK at Hoiuehald Work.

'fi

1... .In f..j .k I..5 |f.,

piiiplprflpipilip!

= ■5113 SsM itU mi islt ills Jill

M 1 1 ! i 1 f

230 Yorkshire Jmtitution for the Deaf and Dumb.

l,H

iWli

J. i

i ?

i3 -

I * .1*

-I
I

• .ai.f- •nlfiiM I

}SS| Uil H = l 541} Mil I

■K.I. J .J .J .J..

14fW 14 W 14 Wf

I 5^ :

J,..|. = =|.

B^s|^j sj^3 s=^^ slSS Sai§f

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 231

A new arrangeinent of school business is necessary every
half year. The first and second class receive most of their
lessons together^ though the childen are of a different standing
in the institution. This is done to economize teachers. By
the term language used in the tabular views, is meant
classes of words and particular forms of expression^ from the
ordinary noun to abstract ideas. Perhaps grammar would
be better understood, but the teaching is carried on without
the use of grammatical rules. The lessons are illustrations
of grammar, rather than grammar itself; and, therefore, more
properly called language. The word physics means lessons
on the properties of natural bodies, such as were before
adverted to'in ^ The Little Philosopher.' The scripture history
used by the third class, which consists of pupils who have been
a year and a half in the institution, is written in a style suited
to their confined knowledge of language. It is almost with-
out particles, and very free from elliptical expression. As
these lessons are unpublished, an example is given below.
Would not books for children be better understood if a similar
style were used in their composition ? In talking to children,
we invariably endeavour to omit expressions which might
embarrass them, and at the risk of much repetition, we use
language, such as we think adapted to the inrantine mind*

^THE PLAIN OF SHINAR.

'After many years, men were very numerous on the earth.
Men lived near to each other. They spoke the same language.
They liked to live in the same place. It was a pleasant
country where men lived. It was a plain. They wished to
live there always. The plain was called Shinar. It was
very wide and extensive. There (on the plain) people had
their houses, tents, fields, and cattle. The people said 5—' We
are numerous and strong — we will build a city and a tower —
the tower shall be very high — its top shall reach the clouds —
let us now make bricks and burn them, and let us make
laoTtBX — we will stay here always — we will not go to distant
countries — ^we will not be scattered abroad on the earth.*
God m,w the city and the tower which men were building.
God was not pleased,' &c.

It will be borne in mind that these lessons are almost the first
complete sentences on a connected subject which are commu-
nicated to the pupils, and this is done as soon as they begin to
have a tolerably correct idea of the structure of sentences. If
the readers of the Journal will refer to the article on * An Im-

232 Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.

proved Method of teaching Modern Languages' in the 8th
Number^ they will find a precisely similar course recom-
mended ; and indeed a German tale is there broken into sen-
tences quite similar to the above example. Deaf and dumb
pupils are learners of the English language, and their case is
parallel to that of other learners of languages in one respect^
though they have to learn through ^ more intricate medium.
The deaf have to ascend from their very meagre language
of natural signs, to one very rich and full in its artificial
expressions for thoughts which have never entered into their
witaught minds, thus establishing a wide difference between
them and other language learners. We who hear and speak
have clear ideas of all conventional signs in our mother-
tongue. The operation with us is only to transfer an idea
which we already possess into the conventional sign for that
idea in the language we desire to acquire. The deaf and
dumb have to master the idea as well as the sign for it.

Next to a series of reading books on nature, science,
and art, too much stress cannot be laid on providing a
museum of natural and artificial objects, minerals, metals,
woods, shells, models, instruments^ pictures, foreign curi-
osities, illustrative of the productions and manners of distant
countries, &c. &c. These are the most efficient of all helps
to the instruction of the deaf and dumb ; they are better than
any descriptions, because they present ideas to the mind with
more force than words can do, even with all the assistance of
signs. A collection of this kind has been commenced in that
institution to whose history and prospects we have now
devoted our pages, and we would gladly do it some service
by recommending its friends to send contributions to the
museum. Many specimens have been procured from shop-
keepers and mechanics ; some have been kindly presented,
and others have been collected by the pupils. The more
complete such a collection can be made, the clearer will be
the conceptions formed by the pupils of the nature and pro-
perties of things, an incalculable advantage to all young people^
whether endowed with all their senses or unfortunately deaf
and dumb.

Much of the earlier instruction of deaf-mutes might be
accomplished before they are admitted into institutions ;
they might be taught to write, to learn their letters, to spell
the names of objects, to learn many of the qualities of objects
and actions, either at ordinary schools or at home. It is
hoped that some of the teachers in England will publish a
series of graduated exercises in language to aid this desirable
work^ and that the mystery which has so long shrouded the

Yorkshire Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. 233

different methods of instruction in the British dominions will
be removed. Already on the Continent we behold the dawn-
ing of a brighter day. In some countries the instruction is
commenced in the primary schools, and in others, books have
appeared to assist parents and ordinary school-masters. The
institutions for the deaf and dumb at Berlin, Konigsberg,
Munster, Munich, and Gmiind have been formed into
normal schools to train teachers for their respective countries.
In Denmark all the deaf and dumb are gratuitously educated at
the two schools of that kingdom.

The continental labours in behalf of the deaf and dumb are
exhibited in the last circular of the Royal Institution at Paris^
from which our few preceding remarks respecting them are
drawn. This work appears biennially, or triennially, as the
information transmitted to the directors of that institution
accumulates. It is printed by the government, and though at a
considerable expense, it is sent gratuitously to all known esta-
blishments for the deaf and dumb. Its circulation, we venture
to say, must effect valuable changes in the education of that
unfortunate class of persons to whose interest it is devoted.
The mass of intelligence which it contains on the practical
parts of instruction^ can only be appreciated by those teachers
who have directed their hearts and their minds to this work
of beneficence. This circular, together with the details of
de Gerando, the practical work of Bebian, and various publi-
cations which have appeared in Germany, have done more
for the improvement of the deaf and dumb, than had been
effected in the whole period which elapsed after the discovery
was made that they were not incapable of instruction.

The institutions for the deaf and dumb in England are as
follows : —

Date of Foundation. Head Master. Pupils.

London 1792 Mr. James Watson 230

Birmingham 1815 Mr. du Puget 40

Manchester 1824 Mr. Vaughan 50

Liverpool 1825 * Mr. Scott 30

Exeter 1827 Mr. Bingham 50

Doncasler 1829 Mr. C. Baker 50

There are also institutions for the deaf and dumb at Edin-
burgh, Paisley, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, and one at Dublin :
there are none in Wales.

( 234 )

RUGBY SCHOOL*,

This school was originally a simple grammar"*8chool5 de-
signed for the benefit of the town of Rugby and its neigh*
bourhood. Any person who has resided for the space of
two years in the town of Rugby, or at any place in the
county of Warwick within ten miles of it, or even in the
adjacent counties of Leicester and Northampton to the dis-
tance of five miles from it^ may send his sons to be educated
at the school without paying anything whatever for their in*
struction. But if a parent lives out of the town of Rugby,
his son must then lodge at one of the regular boarding-houses
of the school ; in which case the expenses of his board are
the same as those incurred by a boy not on the foundation.

Boys placed at the school in this manner are called foun-
dationers, and their number is not limited. In addition to
these, there are 260 boys^ not on the foundation ; and this
number is not allowed to be exceeded.

The number of masters is ten, consisting of a head master
and nine assistants. The boys are divided into nine, or prac-
tically into ten classes, succeeding each other in the follow-
ing order, beginning from the lowest: first form, second
form, third form, lower remove ; fourth form, upper remove,
lower fifth, fifth, and sixth. It should be observed, to ac-
count for the anomalies of this nomenclature, that the name
of sixth form has been long associated with the idea of the
highest class in all the great public schools of England ; and^
therefore, when more than six forms are wanted they are
designated by other names^ in order to secure the magic name
of sixth to the highest form in the school. In this the prac-
tice of our schools is not without a very famous precedent :
for the Roman augurs, we are told, would not allow Tar-
quinius Priscus to exceed the ancient and sacred number of
three, in the centuries of Equites ; but there was no objec-
tion made to his doubling the number of them in each cen-
tury, and making in each an upper and a lower division, which
were practically as distinct as two centuries. There is no
more wisdom in disturbing an old association for no real
benefit, than in sparing it when it stands in the way of any
substantial advantage.

Into these ten classes the boys are distributed in a three-

* We are enabled to present our readers with an accurate account of the
coarse of instruction in Rugby School, conformably to the plan already com-
menced in this Journal, Nos. V. and IX. See remark at the head of the ar^cle
on Harrow School in No. V.

Rugby School. 235

fold division^ according to their proficiency in classical lite-
rature, in arithmetic and mathematics^ and in French. There
is an exception made however in favour of the sixth forny,
which consists in all the three divisions of exactly the same
individuals. All the rest of the boys are classed in each of
the divisions without any reference to their rank in the other
two : and thus it sometimes happens that a boy is in the fifth
form in the mathematical division^ while he is only in the
third or fourth in the classical ; or, on the other hand, that
he is in a very low form in the French division, while he is
in a high one in the classical and mathematical. During the
two first lessons on Wednesday, the school is arranged ac-
cording to its classes in French ; and on Saturday^ according
to its classes in arithmetic and mathematics.

The masters also have different forms in the three different
divisions. The masters of the higher classical forms may teach
the lower forms in mathematics or French^ and the masters
of the higher forms in either of those two departments may
have the care of the lower forms in the classical arrangement.

The general school-hours throughout the week are as fol-
lows : —

Monday. — First lesson, seven to eight. Second lesson,
quarter-past nine to eleven. Third and fourth lessons, quarter-
past two to five.

' Tuesday. — First and second lessons, as on Monday. Ele-
ven to one, composition. Half-holiday,

JFednesday. — As on Monday.

Thursday. — As on Tuesday.

Friday. — As on Monday.

Saturday. — As on Tuesday and Thursday, except that
there is no composition from eleven to one.

There are various other lessons at additional hours for
different classes^ but it is needless to trouble our readers with
such minute details.

Each half year is divided into two equal periods, called
language time and history time. The books read in these
two periods vary in several instunces, — -the poets and orators
being read principally durin|f the language time, and history
and geography being chiefly studied during the history time.
This wiU be more clearly seen from the following Table of
the general work of the school for a whole year.

Rugby School.

ijiji

"ill

llll

¥f

■Ms

I'll

ifli

i i"

JiSi--

Rugby School.

5
t

1 1

'ill

fill i

111.

ifffil

2 "^^

lilt

llll
1 * i

iPi 1 fl

lliiiif

j Jilt

Sugbtf School.

L
l|

1 I

111 s

'- iWMm

4 1

111.

1^1

^ I-
I"""

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ttugby School. 239

Every year, immediately before the Christmas holidays,
there is a general examination of the whole school in the
work that has been done during the preceding half-year. A
class-paper is printed containing the names of those boys who
distinguish themselves ; and in order to gain a high place on
this paper, it is usual for the boys to read some book in one
or more of their several branches of study, in addition to what
they have read with the masters in school. In this man-
ner they have an opportunity of reading any work to which
their peculiar taste may lead them, and of rendering it avail-
able to their distinction in the school.

There are exercises in composition, in Greek and Latin
prose, Greek and Latin verse, and English prose^ as in other
large classical schools. In the subjects given for original
composition in the higher forms, there is a considerable
variety. Historical descriptions of any remarkable events,
geographical descriptions of countries, imaginary speeches
and letters, supposed to be spoken or written on some great
question or under some memorable circumstances ; etymo-
logical accounts of words in different languages, and criti-
cisms on different books, are found to offer an advantageous
variety to the essays on moral subjects to which boys* prose
composition has sometimes been confined.

Three exhibitioners are elected every year by the trusteeis^
of the school, on the report of two examiners appointed re-
spectively by the vice-chancellors of Oxford and Cambridge*
These exhibitions are of the value of 60/. a year, and may be
held for seven years at any college at either university, pro-
vided the exhibitioner continues to reside at college so long ;
for they are vacated immediately by non-residence.

One scholar is also elected every year by the masters, after
an examination held by themselves. The scholarship is of
the value of 25/. a year, and is confined to boys under four-
teen and a half at the time of their election. It is tenable
for six years, if the boy who holds it remains so long at
Rugby. But as the funds for these scholarships arise only
from the subscriptions of individuals, they are not to be con*
sidered as forming necessarily a permanent part of the school
foundation.

In any statement of the business of a school, such as has
been given above, there will be an unintentional exaggera-
tion, unless the reader makes due allowance for the difference
between the theory of any institution and its practical work-
ing. But on the other hand, a reader unacquainted with the
real nature of a classical education, will be m danger of un-
dervaluing it^ when he sees that so large a portion of time at

240 Rughy School.

so important a period of haman life is devoted to the study
of a few ancient writers, whose works seem to have no direct
bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation. For
instance, although some provision is undoubtedly made at
Rugby for acquiring a knowledge of modern history, yet the
History of Greece and Rome is more studied than that of
France and England ; and Homer and Virgil are certainly
much more attended to than Shakspeare and Milton. This
appears to many persons a great absurdity; while others
who are so far swayed by authority as to believe the system
to be right, are yet unable to understand how it can be so.
A journal of education may not be an unfit place for a few
remarks on this subject.

It may freely be confessed that the first origin of classical
education affords in itself no reasons for its being continued
now. When Latin and Greek were almost the only written
languages of civilized man, it is manifest that they must have
furnished the subjects of all liberal education. The question
therefore is wholly changed, since the growth of a complete
literature in other languages ; since France, and Italy, and
Germany, and England, have each produced their philo-
sophers, their poets, and their historians, worthy to be placed
on the same level with those of Greece and Rome.

But although there is not the same reason now which ex-
isted three or four centuries ago for the study of Greek and
Roman literature, yet there is another no less substantial.
Expel Greek and Latin from your schools, and you confine
the views of the existing generation to themselves and their
immediate predecessors : you will cut off so many centuries
of the world's experience, and place us in the same state as
if the human race had first come into existence in the year
1500. For it is nothing to say that a few learned individuals
might still study classical literature ; the effect produced on
the public mind would be no greater than that which has re-
sulted from the labours of our oriental scholars ; it would not
spread beyond themselves, and men in general after a few
generations would know as little of Greece and Rome, as they
do actually of China and Hindostan. But such an ignorance
would be incalculably more to be regretted. With the Asiatic
mindj we have no nearer connexion or sympathy than that
which is derived from our common humanity. But the mind
of the Greek and of the Roman is in all the essential points of
its constitution our own ; and not only so, but it is our own
mind developed to an extraordinary degree of perfection. Wide
as is the difference between us with respect to those physical
instruments which minister to our uses or our pleasures ;

Rtighy Sd]u>oL 241

although the Greeks and Romans had no steam-engines, no
printing-presses, no mariner's compass, no telescopes, no
microscopes, no gunpowder ; yet in our moral and political
views, in those matters which most determine human cha-
racter, there is a perfect resemblance in these respects.
Aristotle, and Plato, and Thucydides, and Cicero, and Tacitus,
are most untruly called ancient writers ; they are virtually
our own countrymen and contemporaries, but have the ad-
vantage which is enjoyed by intelligent travellers, that their
observation has been exercised in a field out of the reach of
common men ; and that having thus seen in a manner with
our eyes what we cannot see for ourselves, their conclusions
are such as bear upon our own circumstances, while their
information has all the charm of novelty, and all the value
of a mass of new and pertinent facts, illustrative of the great
science of the nature of civilized man.

Now when it is said, that men in manhood so often throw
their Greek and Latin aside, and that this very fact shows
the uselessness of their early studies, it is much more true to
say that it shows how completely the literature of Greece
and Rome would be forgotten, if our system of education did
not keep up the knowledge of it. But it by no means shows
, that system to be useless, unless it followed that when a man
laid aside his Greek and Latin books, he forgot also all that
he had ever gained from them. This, however, is so far from
being the case, that even where the results of a classical edu-
cation are least tangible, and least appreciated even by the
individual himself, still the mind often retains much of the
effect of its early studies in the general liberality of its tastes
and comparative comprehensiveness of its views and notions.

All this supposes, indeed, that classical instruction should
be sensibly conducted ; it requires that a classical teacher
should be fully acquainted with modern history and modern
literature, no less than with those of Greece and Rome.
What is, or perhaps what used to be, called a mere scholar,
cannot possibly communicate to his pupils the main advan-
tages of a classical education. The knowledge of the past is
valuable, because without it our knowledge of the present
and of the future must be scanty j but if the knowledge of the
past be confined wholly to itself, if, instead of being made to
bear upon things around us, it be totally isolated from them,
and so disguised by vagueness and misapprehension as to
appear incapable of illustrating them, then indeed it becomes
little better than laborious trifling, and they who declaim
against it may be fully forgiven.

To select one instance of this perversion, what can be

Jan.— April, 1834, R

242 Hugby School.

more absurd than the practice of what is called construing
Greek and Latin, continued as it often is even with pupils of
an advanced age P The study of Greek and Latin, considered
as mere languages, is of importance, mainly as it enables us
to understand and employ well that language in which we
commonly think, and speak, and write. It does this because
Greek and Latin are specimens of language at once highly
perfect and incapable of being understood without long and
minute attention : the studv of them, therefore^ naturally
Involves that of the general principles of grammar; while
their peculiar excellences illustrate the points which render
language clear^ and forcible^ and beautiful. But our appli'
cation of this general knowledge must naturally be to our
own language ; to show us what are its peculiarities, what
its beauties, what its defects ; to teach us by the patterns or
the analogies offered by other languages^ how the effect which
we admire in them may be produced with a somewhat dif-
ferent instrument. £very lesson in Greek or Latin may and
ought to be made a lesson in English ; the translation of
every sentence in Demosthenes or Tacitus is properly an
exercise in extemporaneous English composition ; a problem,
how to express with equal brevity, clearness, and force, in
our own language, the thought which the original author has
00 admirably expressed in his. But the system of construing,
far from assisting, is positively injurious to our knowledge
and use of English ; it accustoms us to a tame and involved
arrangement of our words, and to the substitution of foreign
idioms in the place of such as are national ; it obliges us to
caricature every sentence that we render, by turning what is,
in its original dress, beautiful and natural, into something
which is neither Greek nor English, stiffs obscure, and flat,
exemplifying all the faults incident to language, and ex-
cluding every excellence.

The exercise of translation, on the other hand, meaning, by
translation, the expressing of on entire sentence of a foreign
language by an entire sentence of our own, as opposed to the
rendering separately into English either every separate word,
or at most only parts of the sentence^ whether larger or
smaller, the exercise of translation is capable of furnishing
improvement to students of every age, according to the mea-
sure of their abilities and knowledge. The late Dr. Gabell,
than whom in these matters there can be no higher authority,
when he was the under master of Winchester College, never
allowed even the lowest forms to construe ; they always were
taught, according ^to his expression, to read into English,
From this habit even the youngest boys derived several ad*

Rugby School 243

vantages ; the meaning of the sentence was more clearly
seen when it was read all at once in English, than when
every clause or word of English was interrupted by the in-
termixture of patches of Latin ; and any absurdity in the
translation was more apparent. Again, there was the habit
gained of constructing English sentences upon any given
subject, readily and correctly. Thirdly, with respect to Latin
itselt the practice was highly useful. By being accustomed
to translate idiomatically, a boy, when turning his own
thoughts into Latin, was enabled to render his own natural
English into the appropriate expressions in Latin. Having
been always accustomed, for instance, to translate * quum
venisset' by the participle * having come,^ he naturally, when
he wishes to translate ' having come' into Latin, remembers
what expression in Latin is equivalent to it. Whereas, if he
has been taught to construe literally ^ when he had come/
he never has occasion to use the English participle in his
translations from Latin ; and when, in his own Latin com-
positions, he wishes to express it, he is at a loss how to do it,
and not unfrequently, from the construing notion that a par-
ticiple in one language must be a participle in another, ren-
ders it by the Latin participle passive ; a fault which all who
have had any Experience in boys' compositions must have
frequently noticed.

But as a boy advances in scholarship, he ascends from the
idiomatic translation of particular expressions to a similar
rendering of an entire sentence. He may be taught that the
order of the words in the original is to be preserved as nearly
as possible in the translation; and the problem is how to
effect this without violating the idiom of his own language.
There are simple sentences, such as ^ Ardeam Kutuli habebant/
in which nothing more is required than to change the Latin
accusative into the English nominative, and the active verb
into one passive or neuter : ^ Ardea belonged to the Rutulians.'
And in the same way the other objective cases, the genitive
and the dative, when they occur at the beginning of a
sentence, may be often translated by the nominative in
English, making a corresponding change in the voice of the
verb following. But in many instances also the nominative
expresses so completely the principal subject of the sentence,
that it is unnatural to put it into any other case than the
nominative in the translation. * Omnium primum, avidum
novie libertatis populum, ne postmodum fiecti precibus aut
donis regiis posset, jurejurando adegit {Brutus] neminem
Roma passuros regnare.' It will not do here to translate
• adegit' by 9, passive verb, and to make Brutus the ablative

244 Rttghy School.

c(ise, because Brutus is the principal subject of this and the
sentences preceding and following it ; the historian is engaged
in relating his measures. To preserve, therefore, the order of
the words, the clause * avidum novffi libertatis populum'
must be translated as a subordinate sentence, by inserting a
conjunction and verb. * First of all, while the people were
set so keenly on their new liberty, to prevent the possibility
of their ever being moved from it hereafter by the entreaties or
bribes of the royal house, Brutus bound them by an oath,
that they would never suffer any man to be kiug at Rome.'
Other passages are still more complicated, and require
greater taste and command of language to express them
properly ; and such will often offer no uninteresting trial of
skilly not to the pupil only, but even to his instructor.

Another point may be mentioned, in which the translation
of the Greek and Roman writers is most useful in improving
a boy's knowledge of his own language. In the choice of
his words, and in the style of his sentences, he should
be taught to follow the analogy required by the age and
character of the writer whom he is translating. For in-
stance, in translating Homer, hardly any words should be
employed except Saxon, and the oldest and simplest
of those which are of French origin ; and the language
should consist of a series of simple propositions, connected
with one anothei: only by the most inartificial conjunctions.
In translating the tragedians, the words should be principally
Saxon, but mixed with many of French or foreign origin,
like the language of Shakspeare, and the other dramatists of
the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. The term * words of
French origin' is used purposely, to denote that large portion
of our language which, although of Latin derivation, came to
us immediately from the French of our Norman conquerors,
and thus became a part of the natural spoken language of that
mixed people, which grew out of the melting of the Saxon
and Norman races into one another. But these are carefully
to be distinguished from another class of words equally of
Latin derivation, but which have been introduced by learned
men at a much later period, directly from Latin books, and
have never, properly speaking, formed any part of the genuine
national language. These truly foreign words, which Johnson
used so largely, are carefully to be shunned in the translation
of poetry, as being unnatural, and associated only with the
most unpoetical period of our literature, the middle of the
eighteenth century.

So also, in translating the prose writers of Greece and
Rome^ Herodotus should be rendered in the style and

Rugby School, 245

language of the chroniclers ; Thucydides in that of Bacon or
Hooker, while Demosthenes, Cicero, Ciesar and Tacitus,
require a style completely modern — the perfection of the
English language such as we now speak and write it, varied
only to suit the individual differences of the different writers,
but in its range of words^ and in its idioms, substantially the
same.

Thus much has been said on the subject of translation^
because the practice of construing has naturally tended to
bring the exercise into disrepute : and in the contests for
academical honours at both Universities, less and less import-
ance, we have heard, is' constantly being attached to the
power of viva voce translation. We do not wonder at any
contempt that is shown towards construing^ the practice
being a mere folly ; but it is of some consequence that the
value of translating should be better understood, and the
exercise more carefully attended to. It is a mere chimera to
suppose, as many do, that what they call free translation is a
convenient cover for inaccurate scholarship. It can only be
so through the incompetence or carelessness of the teacher.
If the force of every part of the sentence be not fully given,
the translation is so far faulty ; but idiomatic translation, much
more than literal, is an evidence that the translator does see
the force of his original ; and it should be remembered that
the very object of so translating is to preserve the spirit
of an author, where it would be lost or weakened by translat-
ing literally ; but where a literal translation happens to be
faithful to the spirit, there of course it should be adopted ;
and any omission or misrepresentation of any part of the
meaning of the original does not preserve its spirit, but, as
far as it goes, sacrifices it, and is not to be called ^ free
translation,' but rather ^ imperfect,' * blundering,* or, in a
word, * bad translation.'

In the statement of the business of Rugby School which
has been given above, one part of it will be found to consist
of works of modern history. An undue importance is
attached by some persons to this circumstance, and those who
would care little to have their sons familiar with the history
of the Peloponnesian war are delighted that they should
study the Campaigns of Frederic the Great or of Napoleon.
Information about modern events is more useful, they think,
than that which relates to antiquity; and such information
they wish to be given to their children.

This favourite notion of filling boys with useful information
is likely, we think, to be productive of some mischief. It is
a caricature of the principles of inductive philosophy^ which,

246 Rugby School.

while it taught the importance of a knowledge of facts, never
imagined that this knowledge was of itself equivalent to
wisdom. Now it is not 8o much our object to give boys
' useful information/ as to facilitate their gaining it hereafter
for themselves, and to enable them to turn it to account
when gained. The first is to be effected by supplying them
on any subject with a skeleton which they may fill up
hereafter. For instance, a real knowledge of history in after
life is highly desirable ; let us see how education can best
facilitate tlie gaining of it. It should begin by impressing on
a boy's mind the names of the greatest men of different
periods, and by giving him a notion of their order in point
of time, and the part of the earth on which they lived. This
is best done by a set of pictures bound up together in a
volume, such, for instance, as those, which illustrated Mrs.
Trimmer's little histories, and to which the writer of this article
is glad to acknowledge his own early obligations. Nor
could better service be rendered to the cause of historical
instruction than by publishing a volume of prints of universal
history, accompanied with a very short description of each.
Correctness of costume in such prints, or good taste in the
drawing, however desirable if they can be easily obtained, are
of very subordinate importance : the great matter is that the
print should be striking, and full enough to excite and to
gratify curiosity. By these means a lasting association is
obtained with the greatest names in history, and the most
remarkable actions of their lives : while their chronological
arrangement is learnt at the same time from the order of the
pictures ; a boy's memory being very apt to recollect the
place which a favourite print holds in a volume, whether it
comes towards the beginning, middle, or end, what picture
comes before it, and what follows it. Such pictures should
contain as much as possible the poetry of history:
the most striking characters, and most heroic actions,
whether of doing or of suffering; but they should not
embarrass themselves with its philosophy, with the causes of
revolutions, the progress of socijety, or the merits of great
political questions. Their use is of another kind, to make
some great name, and great action of every period, familiar
to the mind ; that so in taking up any more detailed history or
biography, (and education should never forget the importance
of preparing a boy to derive benefit from his accidental
reading,) he may have some association with the subject of
it, and may not feel himself to be on ground wholly unknown
to him. He may thus be led to open volumes into which he
would otherwise have never thought of looking : he need not

Rugby SchoaL 247

read them througb«»-iodeed it is sad folly to require either
man or boy to read through every book they look at^ but he
will see what is said about such and such persons or
actions ; and then he will learn by the way something about
other persons and other actions 3 and will have his stock of
associations increased, so as to render more and more infor-
mation acceptable to him.

After this foundation, the object still being rather to create
an appetite for knowledge than to satisfy it, it would be
desirable to furnish a boy with histories of one or two
particular countries, Greece, Rome, and England for instance,
written at no great length, and these also written poetically
much more than philosophically, with much liveliness of style^
and force of painting, so as to excite an interest about the
persons and things spoken of. The absence of all instruction in
politics or political economy, nay even an absolute erro-
neousness of judgment on such matters, provided ahvays that
it involves no wrong principle in morality, are comparatively
of slight importance* Let the boy gain, if possible, a strong
appetite for knowledge to begin with ; it is a later part of
education which should enable him to pursue it sensibly, and
to make it, when obtained, wisdom.

But should his education, as is often the case, be cut short
by circumstances^ so that he never receives its finishing
lessons; will he not feel the want of more direct information
and instruction in its earlier stages ? The answer is, that
every thing has its proper season, and if summer be cut out
of the year, it is vain to suppose that the work of summer
can be forestalled in spring* Undoubtedly^ much is lost by
this abridgment of the term of education, and it is well to
insist strongly Upon the evil, as it might, in many instances,
be easily avoided. But if it is unavoidable, the evil conse-
quences arising from it cannot be prevented. Fulness of
knowledge and sagacity of judgment are fruits not to be
looked for in early youth ; and he who endeavours to force
them does but interfere with the natural growth of the plant,
and prematurely exhaust its vigour.

• In the common course of things, however, where a young
person's education is not interrupted^ the later process is one
of exceeding importance and interest. Supposing a boy to
possess that outline of general history which his prints and
his abridgments will have given him, with his associations,
so far as they go, strong and lively, and his desire of in-
creased knowledge keen, the next thing to be done is to set
him to read some first-rate historian, whose mind was formed
in, and bears the stamp of some period of advanced civiliza*

248 r Rugby School.

tion* analogous to that in which we now live. In other
words, he should read Thucydides or Tacitus, or any writer
equal to them, if such can be found, belonging to the third
period of full civilization, that of modern Europe since the
middle ages. The particular subject of the history is of
little moment, so long as it be taken neither from the bar-
barian, nor from the romantic, but from the philosophical or
civilized stage of human society ; and so long as the writer
be a man of commanding mind, who has fully imbibed the
influences of his age, yet without bearing its exclusive im-
press. And the study of such a work under an intelligent
teacher becomes indeed the key of knowledge and of wis-
dom : first it affords an example of good historical evidence^
and hence the pupil may be taught to notice from time to
time the various criteria of a credible narrative, and by the
rule of contraries to observe what are the indications of a tes-
timony questionable, suspicious, or worthless. Undue scep-
ticism may be repressed by showing how generally truth has
been attained when it has been honestly and judiciously
sought ; while credulity may be checked by pointing out, on
the other hand, how manifold are the errors into which those
are betrayed whose intellect or whose principles have been
found wanting. Now too the time is come when the pupil
may be introduced to that high philosophy which unfolds
' the causes of things/ The history with which he is engaged
presents a view of society in its most advanced state^ when
the human mind is highly developed, and the various crises
which affect the growth of the political fabric are all over-
past. Let him be taught to analyse the subject thus pre-
sented .to him ; to trace back institutions, civil and religious,
to their origin ; to explore the elements of the national cha-
racter, as now exhibited in maturity, in the vicissitudes of
the nation's fortune, and the moral and physical qualities of
its race ; to observe how the morals and the mind of the
people have been subject to a succession of influences, some
accidental, others regular; to see and remember what cri-
tical seasons of improvement have been neglected, what be-
setting evils have been wantonly aggravated by wickedness
or folly. In short, the pupil may be furnished as it were
with certain formulae, which shall enable him to read all his-
tory beneficially ; which shall teach him what to look for in
it, how to judge of it, and how to apply it.

Education will thus fulfil its great business, as far as re-
gards the intellect, to inspire it with a desire of knowledge,
and to furnish it with power to obtain and to profit by what
it seeks for. And a man thus educated, even though he

Rugby School. 2AQ

knows no history in detail but that which is called ancient,
will be far better fitted to enter on public life than he who
could tell the circumstances and the date of everv battle and
every debate throughout the last century ; whose information,
in the common sense of the term^ about modern histor}',
might be twenty times more minute. The fault of systems
of classical education in some instances has been, not that
they did not teach modern history, but that ihey did not
prepare and dispose their pupils to acquaint themselves with
it afterwards ; not that they did not attempt t« raise an im-
possible superstructure, but that they did not prepare the
ground for the foundation, and put the materials within reach
of the builder.

That impatience, which is one of the diseases of the age, is
in great danger of possessing the public mind on the subject
of education ; an unhealthy restlessness may succeed to
lethargy. Men are not contented with sowing the seed un-
less they can also reap the fruit ; forgetting how often it is
the law of our condition, that * one soweth and another
reapeth.' It is no wisdom to make boys prodigies of infor-
mation ; but it is our wisdom and our duty to cultivate their
faculties each in its season, first the memory and imagina-
tion, and then the judgment ; to furnish them with the means>
and to excite the desire, of improving themselves, and to wait
with confidence for God's blessing on the result.

GERMAN HIGH SCHOOLS.
Gymnasium at Bonn,

In the first number of this Journal, our readers will find some
account of one of the high schools in Germany^ which was
drawn up with the intention of showing the plan of instruc-
tion pursued in that country, and of proving, at the same
time, that a much wider field was traversed there, than is
yet generally thought necessary in our principal seminaries.
We pride ourselves on being a highly religious people, and
yet we do not take the same pains to instruct our youth in
the doctrines of Christianity, and to make them comprehend
the chief duties of morality, as they do in Germany. Our
readers will observe in this Gymnasium at Bonn, that they
have found no difiiculty in uniting pupils of different religions
in the same school ; while their moral and intellectual edu-
cation is carried on together, their religious instructors do
not seem to encroach on the domain of each other^ nor does

330 German High Schools.

it seem for an instant to be imagined that the harmony
of the establishment can be interrupted by any discord on
this subject. When will our countrymen learn to separate
the essentials of truth from less important doctrines^ and
be taught to have real toleration for the opinions of each
other ?

The Gymnasium of Bonn is conducted by twelve teachers^
who give instruction in Latin and Greek, Natural Historyj
Mathematics, French, Hebrew, History, and Geography.
The school is* divided into six classes ; the average age at
which pupils enter is from eight to nine years. The course
of instruction pursued at the Gymnasium of Bonn, drawn
from the account published last September, is the fol«
lowing : —

L Religion, — In the three lower classes the Catholic pu-
pils are taught the first principles of religious belief, and of
moral duty and biblical history, as far as the Prophets. The
catechisms used are Annegarn, Achterfeld, and Ontrup.
Written exercises are required from the more advanced pupils.
In Tertia, the pupils are instructed on revelation, the nature
of God, the relation in which the world, and more particularly
man, stands to God, primitive state of man, fall and re-
demption. In SecundOj doctrine of redemption and salvation
of man ; illustration of the doctrines contained in the Epistle
to the Romans, more particularly in reference to the doctrine
of justification ; conditions of mercy ; means of grace. In
Prima (highest class), general doctrines of religion and of
moral duty i illustration of the Epistle to the Hebrews in
reference to the priesthood and crucifixion of Christ.

In the three lower classes, the Protestant pupils are taught
the History of the Old and New Testament, being instructed
at the same time in the great duties of morality.

In Tertia, the pupils are taught the principles of religious
belief and moral duties, illustrated by reference to the Epistle
to the Corinthians, and the first Epistle of John ; general intro-
ducticin to the Holy Scriptures, with a complete development
of the means of salvation there laid down. In Secunda, the
life of ti Christian is illustrated in the Epistle to Timothy.

In Prima, development of the doctdnes of religion and
of justification by faith; reading of the first Epistle of John
in the original. The pupils are also required to furnish
written exercises regularly;

II. Latin Language. — (Grammars; Lncas Q.nd Zumpt,)
In SextUy the rudiments of the language are learnt as far as the
conjugation of the regular verbs ; the pupils commit to memory
at the sarpe time a vocabulary of wprds, and short sentences

German High Schools. 251

with written and oral exercises. In Quintan continuation of
the elements of the language with the principal rules of syntax,
and written and oral exercises. In Quartan translation and
grammatical illustration of passages selected from Jacobs'
and Doring'^s Latin Delectus (Elementarbuch) ; written
exercises in translating from German into Latin and from
Latin into German. In Teriia, select passages from Ovid's
Metamorphoses, and Cornelius Nepos ; the pupils are now
practised in Zumpt's larger grammar as far as the Syntaxis
Ornata, with Prosody, and towards the end of the session read
Cfiesar's Gallic War, Book L — III., and V., with oral and Writ-
ten exercises from German into Latin. In Secundoy the pu-
pils read Livy, Virgil^ some letters of Cicero, and some of his
Orations, with the Syntaxis Ornata of Zumpt ; essays
and exercises in the Latin language. In Prima; the
Epistles and Odes of Horace, Tusculan Questions of Cicero,
the Germania of Tacitus, with exercises from the German
into Latin.

III. Greek Language. — (Grammar; Buttmann's School
Grammar.) It is taught only in the four upper classes of the
School. In Quarta, the etymological part of the language
is taught, and written exercises on it are required ; at the
same time the first part of Jacobs' Elementary work is read.
In Tertia, the syntax of the language is acquired, and the
second part of Jacobs' work is read, with oral and written
exercises in translation from German. In Secunda^ Homer's
Odyssey, and parts of Herodotus are read ; Buttman's Gram-
mar, with translations from German into Greek, and Greek
into Latin. In Prima, Xenophon, Homer's Iliad, and the
Hecuba of Euripides.

IV. Hebrew Language, — (Grammar; Gesenius.) It is
taught in the two upper classes for the sake of those pupils
who intend to study theology after they hare left the
school.

V. German Language. — In the three lower classes the
etymology and syntax of the language are taught ; oral and
written exercises are prescribed. In the three higher, select
passages from the classic authors of Germany are read and
illustrated. In Prima^ the pupils are made acquainted with
the history of the German language and literature, from the
earliest period to the present time.

VI. French Language. — It is taught only in the three
higher classes, and the pupils read a part of Barthelemy's
Anarcharsis, Voltaire's Henriade, and Montesquieu's Gran-
deur et Decadence des Romains.

VII. Mathematics. — The mathematiqal instruction in the

252 German High Schools,

two lower classes is confined to the elements of arith-
metic. In Tertia, equations of the first degree, and plane
geometry are taught. In Sectmda, Logarithms, the Progres-
sions, Equations of the second degree^ and Plane Trigono-
metry. In Prima^ theory of equations, binomial theory ;
application of Trigonometry to geometrical problems.

VIII. History and Geography, — In Sexta^ the pupils are
taught the geography of Europe, and particularly of Germany
and Prussia, with the biographies of illustrious men. In
Qui>i/a,the geography of the world and the political geography
of Europe in particular, with an account of the manners and
customs of the people. In Quarta, their geographical studies
are continued^ and the principal events of general history
are taught, from Noah down to the Saxon emperors. In
Tertia, the principal events of history from Noah down to
our own times. In SecundUy ancient history down to Alex-
ander. In Primay the history of the middle ages, down to
Rudolph of Hapsburg.

IX. Natural History, — In Sexta, the pupils are taught
a short general view of the three kingdoms of nature;
with a more detailed history of animals, according to Schu-
bert's Manual of Natural History. In Quinta, description
of plants in general, and some of the most remarkable and
useful, with an inspection of dried specimens. In Quarla^
short recapitulations of the former course ; introduction to
mineralogy, and description of the most remarkable fossils^
according to Stein's short sketch of Natural History.

X. Natural Philosophy (Physics). — It is taught in the
three higher classes of the school. In Tertia^ the pupils are
taught the general laws of physics. In Secunda^ the laws of
motion, the properties of elastic bodies, and the laws of
sound. In Prima, a general view of the most remarkable
and simple laws of nature.

XI. Singing is taught four hours weekly, to pupils who
have a taste for it, and they are divided into three classes.

XII. Calligraphy (writing) is taught three hours weekly,
in the two lower classes.

XIII. Drawing is taught two hours weekly in the four
lower classes.

The number of hours in which the pupils are engaged
during the week may be seen from the following table f

^-d

German High Schools. 253

Clauses and Hours employed during the Week, '

1st Cl. 2nd Cl. 3rd CI. 4th CI. 5th CI. 6th CI. Total.

Religion (Catholic) 2 2 2 2 1 2 12

(Protestant) 2 2 2 1 I 1 9

Latin Language 9 9 9 10 10 10 57

Greek Language 7 7 5 5 24

Hebrew Language 2 2 4

German Language ,3 3 3 4 4 421

French Language 2 2 2 6

Mathematics 4 4 4 5 5 5 27

History and Geography 3 3 3 3 4 4 20

Natural History 2 2 2 6

Natural Philosophy 2 2 2 6
Singing

Calligraphy 3 3 6

Drawing 2 2 2 2 8

Total . 36 36 34 34 32 33 206

The following is a list of the number of pupils in each class,
during the last year, 1833 : —

Prima . • . . • 10

Secunda • ' • • • .15

Tertia ..... 29

Quarta . • . . .37

Quinta .... 29

Sexta . • . . .33

Total . 155

The session, or school year, begins on the 15th of October
with an examination of new pupils, for the purpose of
determining in what class they ought to be placed; and
it ends on the 12th of September of the following year.

The following regulations have been issued by the proper
authorities to regulate matters connected with the gymnasia ;
and though we are inclined to think that they are carrying
these matters of detail too far in the Prussian system of
education, there can be no doubt that it is done with the very
best intention.

The Minister of Public Instruction has issued the follow-
ing ordinance (25th January, 1833), with the view of securing
a proper control over those pupils whose parents or rela-
tions do not reside on the spot where they are taught.

1. Those pupils only can be admitted into Gymnasia, and
such places of instruction, who are immediately under the eye
of their parents, their relations, or of persons whose atten-
tion is devoted to the education of the young. Pupils who
are not under proper superintendence cannot be admitted.

2. On the admission of boys, whose parents or relations
do not reside on the spot, the directors of the Gymnasia
must make themselves acquainted with the manner in which
their conduct is to be superintended 3 . and if the arrange-*

Hoi Oerman High Schools.

ments do not appear satisfactory, they must communicate
with the parents or relations^ and not admit the pupil till
they are perfectly satisBed.

3. No pupil is allowed to be removed from one person's
care to that of another, without the knowledge of the Di-
rector.

4. The Director in empowered and bound to make himself
acquainted with the conduct of out-door pupils, either by
personal inquiry, or by the assistance of the masters of the
gymnasium ; if any irregularity be discovered, it is his duty
to put an immediate stop to it.

5. The masters also, without being particularly commis-
sioned by the Director, are bound to visit from time to time
in their residence the out-door pupils who attend their
classes.

6. If it be found that the superintendence, under which
the out-door pupils are placed, is insufficient, or that the
relations in which they are placed are prejudicial to their
morals, the Director is authorized and bound to demand a
change from the parents or relations, which must take place
within a certain time, to be fixed according to circumstances.

7. The parents and relations are bound to attend to these
notices, and to make the superintendents of their children ac-
quainted with them. It remains for the parents or guardians,
in case the institution should require a discontinuance of the
relationship between the pupil and his superintendent, to
make the necessary arrangements with the superintendent
of their children or wards.

ON GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL KNOWLEDGE.

Statistics, a term first introduced by the German writers,
was defined by Achenwall, of Gottingen, to be the exposition
of the effective components of any political society. This
definition may perhaps be objected to by some, and indeed
German writers are not yet very well agreed among themselves
as to the definition of the term Statistics. Our object in this
article is not to determine the exact limits of statistics, but
simply to show the kind of information which is absolutely
necessary for understanding the social and political condition
of a country or nation ; and having this object in view, we
think that the term * political geography' expresses more nearly
than any other that kind of knowledge of which it is our
present purpose to speak. Political geography is the foun-
dation of all political science^ for unless we know the present

Oh Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 255

condition of a country and its people, we cannot possibly
reason correctly on their wants and wishes, and on the rea-
sonableness of those wishes, or the means and chances there
may be of satisfying them. This seems a truism^ but it is
a truism so often disregarded, that we think it necessary to as-
sert it here as a proposition^ the importance of which it is our
object to demonstrate. The geographer, or statistician, gives the
facts; the politician^ the jurist^ and the moralist^ reason and spe-
culate upon them. But unless the facts be accurately stated^ it
is evident that all arguments drawn from them are inconclusive.
Political geography is therefore a science of facts, and not of
hypothesis or speculation ; it shows things as they are^ and
leaves to others to decide whether they ought to be so, or are
likely to remain so.

The elements of the condition of a country are of two kinds,
natural and artificial. The former^ which belong properly to
physical geography, are, its extent and coast-line, the confi-
guration of its surface, its position on the globe and its climate,
its boundaries, and the nature of the countries or seas which
border on it, the quality of its soil, and the character of its
rivers, its natural productions, whether mineral, vegetable, or
animal, and lastly its population. The artificial elements,
which, being the work of man, are temporary and susceptible of
modification, or even total change, consist of the dwellings of
the inhabitants, their agriculture and other branches of in-
dustry and trade, which constitute the wealth and capital of the
country ; the civil and political institutions, the social habits of
the people, their religion and language.

It is the business of political geography to furnish data
to show the influence which the various elements above men-
tioned exercise upon the intellectual, moral, and economical
habits of a people, and upon their political condition. The
natural or topographic elements of a country being mostly
permanent, their influence may be calculated according to
certain rules. Thus, for example, the civilization of Europe has
been greatly promoted by its geographical position, its tem-
perate climate, and its peninsular form indented by two large
inland seas, the Mediterranean and the Baltic, and by nume-
rous gulfs and great rivers, all which circumstances must have
facilitated colonization at first, and social intercourse and
trade afterwards. Africa, massive and unbroken in its shape,
with few navigable rivers, a burning climate and vast deserts,
has remained for the most part uncivilized to this day. And
in Europe itself, which are the countries that have been most
forward in civilization ? Greece, Italy, and England. Greece,

256 On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge.

indented by nunaerous gulfs and creeks, surrounded by clusters
of islands, afibrding numerous natural harbours, and placed
on the threshold of Asia, under a beautiful sky, wa^ most fa-
vourably situated for commerce. Italy, long and narrow, with
an extensive line of coasts, but with few bays or natural
harbours^ is inferior in this respect to Greece, while the
want of tides in the Mediterranean sea renders the rivers
nearly useless for the purpose of ship navigation. It is in
great measure the want of natural harbours that has made
Italy inferior in maritime commerce to Greece and to Eng-
land. On the contrary, Greece is not so rich an agricultural
country as Italy ; she has not such an expanse of well- watered
plains, nor so many fine valleya; her mountains are more
rugged and bare. And in Italy itself, we find that Venice,
seated on her group of islets, forming natural harbours and
canals, soon felt the influence of her position, and consequently
became the principal maritime power of Italy, and in latter
ages the only one. Man may do much to correct local disad-
vantage^, but he can seldom wholly conquer them. In some
cases, the geographical advantages remain neglected, through
the agency of other causes, but these are exceptions, and not
the rule. The coast of Dalmatia, with its numerous bays,
inlets, and islands, is excellently situated for maritime
trade, but Dalmatia having always been a dependency of
other states, first of Venice, jealous of its commercial mono-
poly, and lately of Austria, its resources have remained com-
paratively neglected, and it has not derived the advantages
which might have been expected, from its geographical
situation. Yet the Dalmatian sailors are the boldest and
best in the Mediterranean, while on a spot of its coast where
an independent state long existed, Ragusa was a centre of
trade and maritime enterprise. So true it is that geogra-
phical position will determine the industry of a country, if
not trammelled by external circumstances.

Navigable rivers are the great arteries of social life. The free
towns of Germany during the middle ages, and those of HoN
land, are instances of this. What makes the striking difference
between Egypt, where civilization is older than history, its
origin being lost in the obscurity of the mythic ages, and the
rest of Northern Africa, which, in spite of so many colonies and
conquests from different nations, still remains in the same wild
half barbarous state, as it was two thousand years ago, and
more ? The Nile has been the great civilizer of Egypt, while
Numidia and Mauritania^ mountainous, and destitute of large
navigable rivers, have never admitted civilization to penetrate

On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 2b7

far iato the interior. Again^ Spain, square and compact in
its shape, with hardly any navigable river, and its centre form-
ing a high naked table-land^ labours under great obstacles to
internal communication, and accordingly has never been a
great commercial country ; while Portugal, narrow, with a
long line of coast fronting the Atlantic Ocean, and two noble
sestuaries, the Tagus and the Douro, was for ages one of the
great maritime powers of Europe. In the bleak north, the
coast of Norway, with its innumerable ports, has been always
a nursery of bold seamen. Manufactures may prosper in
countries remote from the sea and from navigable rivers,
and even on the mountains of Switzerland, as manufactures
chiefly -depend on the supply of fuel and water, and of the
raw materials which often are produced near the spot. In
the case of bulky raw materials being brought from distant
parts, the disadvantage of a remote internal manufacturing
site is much greater. Those manufactures which, having
these supplies at hand, are at the same time situated near
the sea, or a navigable river, must have a great advantage
over all others. England unites all these requisites above
every other country in Europe ; its configuration, long line
of coast, numerous natural harbours and navigable rivers,
its inexhaustible supply of coals, its iron and tin mines, all
these have established its supremacy in manufactures and
maritime trade, and this supremacy it must retain as long
as it retains its independence as a nation.

The natural elements of a country, by determining the
industry of the people, influence at the same time their
social and moral habits. The shepherd who grazes his
flocks for one half of the year in the solitude of the Alps,
the Apennines, and the Pyrenees, is a being of simpler
habits, fewer ideas, and fewer words, than the labourer or
artizan who lives in the crowded towns or villages of the
plain. The nomadic Arab, being obliged to wander in quest
of pasture for his cattle, lives constantly encamped, ever on
the watch, and prepared for defence. He acquires habits of
alertness and courage and of extreme sobriety. Milk and a
few dates are his general food. The Sheiks of the wandering
Arab tribes, having no fixed habitations, no castles, or prisons,
can only enforce their authority by popular consent. Hence
the independent spirit of the Nomadic Arabs, and the impossi-
bility of conquering them, or at least of keeping them in
subjection.

As we advance towards the pole, heat, as a general law,
decreases, and the duration of daylight during one half of the
year becomes more and more contracted: this occasions addi-

Jan^— April, 1834. S

258 On Qeographical and Statistical Kn(mledge.

tional wants of fuel, warm clothing, and artificial light* The
labourers of southern countries have fewer wants than those of
northern ones, and therefore are less inclined to work hard.
The precocity of womepj and their early decay^ in the countries
near to or within the tropics, may account in a great measure
for the custom of polygamy among many tropical nations,
though polygamy is not confined to the natives of hot
countries. The appearance of the sky infiqences the taste of
the people for the arts. The sky of Greece and that of
Southern Italy, their rich tints and brilliant appearance^ the
cheerfulness which they seem to spread over all nature^ have
impressed the people of those countries with a lively ^ense of
beauty, and have contributed to form the Style of tb^
music, their poetry, and their architecture*

Climate affects the productions of a country, the habits of
the people, and their commercial relations. The temperature
of a country may be the result of the following circum-
stances : latitude, elevation of the surface, aspect or exposure
to a particular point of the horizon, situation with regard
to some great range of mountainSj or to a sea car ^e>
prevailing winds, &c« The efiects of mere latitude are often
counteracted by some other of the above causes : thus Bogota^
Quito^ and other places within the tropics, eiyoy a temperate
climate. The French side of the Pyrenees experiences a
scTerer winter than the Spanish side of those mountains f
the same difference exists between the Swiss and the Italian
sides of the Alps. In Italy, the valleys on the Genoese and
Tuscan side of the Apennines partake of the nature of southern
countries ; the lemon, orange, fig, and olive tree grow there
in full luxuriance, while the northern slope of the same
range, in the countries of Parma and Modena, is subject to
a long and bleak winter, and can raise none of the above-
nientipned products.

The configuration of a country and the nature of its
boundaries have a powerful influence on its political con«-
dition. There can hardly be a doubt that the insular
position of England has greatly contributed to the preservatiott
of its national independence. Where did Nanoleon's armed
myriads stop ? On the shores of the British Channel, and on
those of the Baltic Sea. It was the Baltic that saved Sweden
from a visitation, after the conqueror had overrun Pomerapia*
Gioia, the Italian economist, observes that the Italian penin-
sula being long and narrow, with an enormous line of coast,,
is assailable on innumerable points from the sea ; whilst on
the land side, the line of defence formed by the Alps is wi^aK-*
ened by the wide crescent form of that range of mountaias
which offers numerous passes to invaders. Again} the great

On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 259

ength of the same peninsula^ intersected by the lofty Apen-

j nines, is a great obistacle to a unity of government, to the

i choice of a common capital, and to the amalgamation of its

various populations. The difference in the climate, nature of

. the soil and its productions, and consequently in the habits of

I the people, is very great between north and south Italy;

^ Naples and Milan are countries quite different from each other.

j Rivers and mountains are the common demarcations of

L political boundaries. Of the two^ mountains form the more

durable and seeure line of frontier. Mountains generally sepa-

rate races and languages, for the social and commercial rela-

^ tions of men mostly follow the direction of the waters that flow

from each side of a mountain range* Hence arise similarity of

interests, habits, sympathy, and a feeling of mutual defence.

A knowledge of the local circumstances of various coun*
tries is essential not (Hily to the statesman and the politician,
but to the merchant^ the traveller, the soldier, and the general
student. The merchant, by being acquainted with them, will
avoid bad speculations, such as sending to tropical climates
^ goods which are only fit for northern latitudes, for instance,

" stoves and thick woollen cloths to Brazil, and even^ as we have

^ heard it asserted, skates to Buenos Ayres, where it never

I freezes. Such blunders could only take place where men were

very ignorant; and though they might not occur now as to
places known by experience to the merchant, we may safely
J say that, if the whole coast of China were at once opened to

foreign trade, very few mercantile men would be sufficiently
masters of such fact^ as are already ascertained about China,
to make a profitable use of them. A similar want of know-
ledge occasioned ludicrous but expensive mistakes in the
mining speculations of Mexico and South America : steam-
engines were sent to be worked on the mountains, in places
almost inaccessible, where there was no fuel to put them in
motion, and no timber suitable for the most necessary purposes.
Napoleon committed a great statistical error by remaining at
Moscow after the town was burnt, and till the winter set in.
He became convinced, when too late, of the fact that men
and horses bred in a more southern latitude, and in the more
western parts of Europe, cannot bear exposure to a Russian
winter. By a knowledge of localities, blunders will be avoided
in spesdcing or writing, such as talking of the trees bearing
fruit in Biscay ia the month of March, or of the smiling plains
of the south in summer, where the fields, unless they can
b^ artificially irrigated, are parched and withered by a
burning sua. With regard to southern countries, people
^oe too apt to indulge in gorgeous visions of a luxuriant

260 On Oeographical and Statistical Knowledge.

vegetation, odoriferous groves, of seas ever blue, weather
always genial, and breezes ever soft ; they forget the summer
drought, the want of water, the torments of thirsty the clouds
of dust and sand, the swarms of flies, mosquitoes, and locusts ;
the numerous poisonous creeping things, the summer storms
and hurricanes, the scirocco and the khamsin^ the malaria
exhalations, the enervation produced by the climate, the
consequent indolence of the people, and their early old age ;
they forget that a sun constantly bright in a sky constantly
blue, month after month, produces at last a sense of weariness
as great as that occasioned by a gloomy northern winter, and
that the appearance of the equinoctial clouds, slowly and darkly
piled one above the other on the verge of the horizon, is as
welcome to the inhabitants of those latitudes, as the first warm
days of spring to those of the British isles. The author of
• Recollections of the Persian Gulf,' quoted by Balbi, observes
that the brilliant descriptions which several writers have
given of the south of Persia are most erroneous, although the
authors of those descriptions cannot be charged with wilful
deception, for they do describe things that exist, only they
colour them so as to render it impossible to recognize them.

' Isles of palms, and banks of pearls, vine arbours, and groves o(
pomegranates, all these appear brilliant^ fresh, and balmy, in the
recital, but how different the reality ! The groves of palms are
stunted, straggling plantations, the pale and faded green of which is
hardly distinguishable from the tints of the naked rocks which sru-
round them ; the pomegranates are covered with white dust ; the
pearl banks are heaps of oyster shells exhaling an infectious odour ;
the crystal springs are brackish water; the breezes are suffocating;
and the vases containing melted rubies are nothing more than
bottles of Shiraz wine, which tastes like bad port mixed with beer,
with a piece of dirty rag for a stopper. Such are the attractions of
the shores of the true): Persian gulf — shores desolate and barren,
under an atmosphere which withers every thing.'

One consequence of these exaggerated descriptions is
that travellers, on visiting the spot to which they refer, and
finding themselves disappointed in their -expectations, often
run into the opposite extreme, and pronounce every thing
detestable, the sky, the climate, the country, and the^ people.
And persons who have not travelled, hearing such discordant
accounts, become doubtful of truth altogether, and assume a
sort of sarcastic and contemptuous scepticism concerning
every thing connected with foreign countries, which they
mistake for wisdom.

If we pass from the natural to the moral causes that affect
the condition of a people, we find the diflBculty of ascertaining
truth greatly increased, for here even personal observation

On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 261

is not sufficient, as every observer sees through his own peculiar
medium. The moral elements of a state may be reduced to
three heads : political, civil, and reUgious institutions.
I The political institutions of a country include its legislative
and executive powers, its political divisions and their adminis-
tration, its financial system and mode of taxation, its military
and naval establishments, &c. The civil institutions are : the
judicial, correctional, and police systems, the establishments
for education, both elementary and superior, and the muni-
cipal or communal administration. All these departments and
their ramifications are too often jumbled together under that
most vague, unsatisfactory denomination, * government.' Civil
and poUtical institutions are confounded together ; no distinc-
tion is made between the administrative, the judiciary and the
municipal powers ; we are told that, in one country, the
monarch, in another the representatives of the nation make the
laws ; but frequently we are not told to whom the administration
of these laws is intrusted ; and yet it is a fact that it is less on
the laws themselves than on the manner in which they are
administered, that the welfare or misery of the people depends.
No particular form of government is sufficient of itself to ensure
the security and prosperity of a nation. All forms of govern-
ment can be abused ; an ignorant or corrupt majority may render
a democracy insufierable to all honest men ; and monarchy, in
the hands of weak, ignorant or wicked rulers, may bring ruin
upon a nation. It is now generally understood that Prussia,
although, in its form, an absolute monarchy, is one of the best
administered countries and its people one of the best informed
in Europe, owing to its universal system of popular education.
Such is its present condition ; it ought to be observed, however,
that, under an absolute form of government, there can be no
guarantee for the future continuance of an upright and enlight-
ened administration. This is the great drawback; but at the
same time, where the people are generally educated and moral,
flagrant abuses can hardly occur ; and if they should occur,
they cannot be of long duration, for they would, in fact, bring
about a change in the form of government.

* In Prussia,' observes M. de Cbambray, in his ' Notes' on that
country in 1833, ' the king, although called absolute^ is in reality less
so than the king and the ministry of France.' He is not obliged to
procure the approbation of the chambers, because there are no
chambers ; but he is obliged to obtain the tacit approbation of the
nation, and of all the civil and military functionaries who owe their
ofRces either to their merit as displayed in rigorous examinations,
or to the suffrages of their fellow-citizens. The king could not
engage in a war reprobated by the nation ; he could not bestow
the first employments in the administration on a mere favourite;
and he could not make unjust promotions in his army.'

262 On Oeographical ami Siatisiical Knowledge.

When to these considerations we add the institution of the
latidwehr, or national militia, and the existence of the provincial
assemblies, who give their advice on matters affecting their
respective provinces* we find that we cannot class Prassia
among despotic governments, although we think we caa

Birceive too much of a military spirit in its organization. Dr.
assely in his * Statistics of the European States,' draws a
distinction between autocratic, or absolute^ and despotic states.
' A despotism,^ he says, * in the proper sense of the word, could
not exist in Christian Europe in the present state of civilization.
Even the most unlimited monarch is bound in some degree by
the old laws and customs of the country, and still more by the
feelings of his subjects, and by public opinion.' Pure despo-
tism is only to be found now in Asia. The Shah of Persia is
more despotic than even the Turkish Sultan.

The judicial system forms a most important element of the
condition of a people. In order to judge of it, we ought to
know something of the written law of the country, of the
formation of the courts, of the qualifications and authority
of thejudges> aini by whom they are appointed and paid; also
of the practice of the courts, the forms of trial, the modes of
punishment, the regulations of the prisons. &c. Few geogra-
phical and descriptive works give us any idea of all these
matters; and yet the security, the personal liberty, the property
of every individual, are dependent on them much more than on
the political form of the government The Swiss republics,
which have enjoyed political freedom and independence for
five hundred years, have had all this time a most wretched
judicial system. The judiciary power was often confounded
with the executive. The punishments were barbarous; the
pillory, branding, and flogging, were in use; torture was
frequently employed, imprisonment and banishment arbitrarily
enforced, suggestive interrogatories, and other modes of extort-
ing confession were in use, — in short, all the iron code of the
Gothic ages was in vigour. It is only witliin a few years that
some of these barbarous practices have been abolished. The
same vices existed in the Italian republics of the middle ages,
and in those of Venice and Genoa till our own time ; Tuscany,
on the contrary, under the absolute rule of Leopold, obtained
an excellent code of laws. But it is not enough that the
laws be good, they ought to be justly administered. The best
laws are of no value if those who administer them are corrupt ;
and this shows the importance which ought to be attached to
the choice, qualifications, and independence of judges and
magistrates. Again, the civil, criminal, and commercial laws
ought to be examined separately, as well as the mode of
proceeding before the various courts, or what the French

On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge, 263

style code de procedure. There are many people who
talk of and extol the Code Napoldon, who probably are not
aware that there are five distinct codes included under that
name, two of which, the civil and the commercial cdde, really
deserve praise. The penal code is vicious in many respects,
and beats the mark of the arbitrary spirit df the ruler under
whom it Was dompiled. Penalties are disproportionate tD
offences, and many enactments, especially those concerhing the
conscription and offences against the state, are tyrannical.
The sentence of confiscation, which accompanied that of death
iti sevetal cases, was abolished only tinder Louis XVIII. The
penalties against associations, or assemblies, literary, religious,
or political) consisting of more than twenty persons, remain in
force. The punishments of vagrants and mendicants are harsh
beyond reason and justice. The code of ' criminal instruction'
or proceedings does not always ensure a fair trial; we can
only refer the reader to the collection of modern ' Causes
Cel^bres' for an illustration of this. The discipline of the prisons
is sadly defective, in common with that of most other countries,
but the treatment of the convicts sent to Toulon and Brest is
truly revolting to humanity. The laws concerning insolvent
debtors are very harshf especially with regard to foreignera.
The code de procedure civile also is encumbered by numerous
forms and technicalities, to which in many cases right is saOri-
ficed. La forme Vemporte sur le fond, as we have heard
French lawyers remark. Under all these regulations, very di»-
similar in their spirit from the political principles recognized in
theory, individual liberty is practically very circumscribed in
Prance. Police measures interfere at almost every step with
the free agency of the citizens. This shows the necessity of
discriminating between the laws and theii" administration,
between theory and practice, between civil and political liberty,
in order to ascertain the real condition of a country^

The municipal or conmiunal system of a country is another es-
sential part of its social condition, but generally the Jeast attended
to. Historical and political writers' are very minute about the
higher branches of the' general administration of a country;
they tell us of kings and councils, of parliaments and repre-
sentative states, of ministers and governors^ of finances and
th^ military force,— in short, they exhibit to our view all the great
scaffolding of the central government, but leave the humbler
machinery of the local administration of the country towns,
districts and villages, communes and parishes, generally unno-
ticed* And yet how much of the peace and comfort of the
great mass of the population, especially the rural part of it^
depends on the proper arrangement of these matters. How
many families may be injured^ bow many bumble beings^ men

264 On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge.

and womeD, may become broken-hearted, and their prospects
blasted, by a tyrannical municipal or local authority, left
uncontrolled. People of simple habits or conditions, such as
the agricultural populations mostly are, care much more about
their justice of the peace^ their priest, and the local collector ;
the manner in which the local taxes are levied and em-
ployed ; the regulations about their markets, roads, and
public-houses, than about questions of general government
which they do not understand.

' The bond which unites together the inhabitants of a commune,'
says an enlightened living French writer,* ' is real and more powerful
than laws ; it is the resalt of hereditary habit: the peasant loves the
steeple of his parish church, the recollections of his life are centered
in that church ; in the adjoining burying ground his fathers lie
interred. The cross-roads lead to the parish village. The peasant is
attached to the curate who performs the service every Sunday ; who
has christened and married him : he would not like to take his child
to be baptized, or send his boys to school, in the next village ; a
feeling of self-love, a sort of narrow patriotism, binds him to the
little world around him.*

' It is the remaining system of ayuntamientos and the popular
election of the alcaldes that has kept up the spirit of the Spanish
peasantry under all the weight of despotism, bigotry and the
Inquisition. As long as the alcalde was one of themselves,
who knew their habits and their wants, and was controlled by
the popular voice, the Spanish peasantry cared little who vi?as
minister at Madrid, or captain-general in the province. And it
is remarkable that in some of the most absolute monarchies that
grew on the ruins of the feudal system, the principle of popular
election in the rural districts has remained most firmly rooted,
and has proved in reality most useful as a protection to the
great mass of the people. It was, and is still found in the
Papal and Neapolitan states, trammelled though it be, and
gradually encroached upon by the central power ; the Vene-
tian senate maintained it in Frioul, and other conquered
provinces; and it exists now where a superficial politician
would least expect it, in Turkey.

The conquest by the Turks svrept away all privileges, all
monopolies, and likewise all disabilities from among the con-
quered races, in those districts which submitted uncondi-
tionally : the inhabitants selected from their own body the
fittest persons for filling the office of assessors, collectors,
and cashiers : for the collection of the taxes or tribute was the
origin of the municipal bodies throughout the country. The
absence of all exclusion and restriction under the common
,yoke left no grounds for strife : all had an equal right of suf-
frage, and the only question at issue was the personal merit

* De Barante, Des Communes et de PAristocratie.

On Geographical and StatisticalKnowledge. 265

and character of the individuals to be chosen. The Turkish
system of direct taxation prevents what we should consider
opposing interests from clashing together. Public opinion
is made manifest through the public voice, and the elections are
concluded in a few minutes^ either in the church after the
service^ or under the village tree, without agitation and with-
out formality. The elders when elected hold their office for
one year, yet they may remain in office for years, or even for
life, without re-election ; but if they lose the public confidence,
no returning day of election is waited for — they are imme-
diately ejected, and successors appointed. Their principal
functions are : — the apportioning the tax imposed upon the
whole community to each individual according to his pro-
perty. They must, therefore, be accurately acquainted with
the property of each member of the community, his means
of livelihood, his profits and his industry. It is their duty,
by timely counsel, admonition, or reproof, to prevent the
negligence^ inactivity, or misfortunes of any individual from
adding to the burthens of the rest. They assess and collect
the poll-tax, house-tax, and land-tax, and many others, which,
in their mode of collection or repartition, vary in almost every
village, but always depend on a scale of property. They
manage the municipal funds with which they pay for lodg-
ings and provisions afforded to Turks, soldiers, couriers,
&c., passing through the place; for presents or bribes to go-
vernors, and other incidental expenses ; also the interest of
the debt with which almost every community in Turkey is
burthened. Their civil functions are the following. They dis-
tribute lands left uncultivated, or without an heir. In trans-
actions between merchants and members of the community
for cheese, butter, wool, cotton, or any other produce, the
contract is legalized by the signature of one or more of the
elders, who thus become security for their townsfolks. Pur-
chases are only legal when witnessed by them. Together
with the priests, they decide on all disputes, settle disputed
water-courses and successions, and maintain a species of
government rather preventive than repressive. The office of
arbitrator or judge belongs more particularly to the priest.
In the provinces, the bishop is judge of the Christians ; by
his beratf his judgment is final in matters of marriage and
divorce. In secular matters, they are guided by the pandects.
In the small communities or rural districts, the priest is judge
in matters which are not of sufficient importance to be carried
before the bishop. The Mohammedan law is not in operation
among the rayas, except in matters in which Turks are con-
cerned ; and these are few, as Mussulmans and rayas cannot
be mutually trustees, guardians, &c. Although the Turks do

266 On Oeographical and Siatistieat Knowledge.

not recognize any judicial authority^ save that of the Mus*
eulman Cadi, imperial tirmans granted to several districts
expressly forbid all interference with decisions which have
been given by any arbitrators whatever, chosen by mutual
consent of the parties. The Turkish law necessarily inter-
feres only in cases of public violence.

' These institutions alone/ adds Mr. Urquhart, from whom W6
have extracted the above interesting particulars, * could have pre-
served to the Greeks their astonishing uniformity of character, lan-
guage, and creed, and produced their submission to the Turkish domi^
nion. Every individual is a guarantee for his neighbour's obligaiiona*
a security for bis person, and consequently a censor on his conditiob
and morals. It is not the influence of the priesthood, or even of
religion, that produces their firm adherence to their creed ; it is re-
spect for the opinions of the litde community to which theybelons^, it
is the moral authority, the support of fellowship and friendship that
results from the close pressure of man and man, and the strong
linking of interests, and opinions, and affections, under the muni-
cipal bond, which is the only law of the Turkish raya/^^rtirA^ and
its Resources, pp. 33-39.

This municipal system is common to the Greeks, Arme*
nians, and Bulgarians. The Albanians, Guegues, Bosnlacs,
Croats, and Sclavonians, do not possess these uistitutions, but
have ever been subject to odjacks, knezes^ and beys^ ot
military chiefs.

' Amongst these races, men, instead of coalescing, seem to fly
each other ; no villages are to be seen huddled together, but insulated
scHs or clans have perched their little towers of defence among the
rocks, and scattered them over the mountains. The Mirdites alone
enjoy a species' of autonomy ; they also retain their creed. In
fact, through all the modifications of climate, position, and race, the
original creed co-exists with the autonomic institutions ; and in th0
absence of these, Islamism is found. The descendants of the warriors
of Scanderbeg and the defenders of Scodra are now Mussulmans ;
the next to impregnable fortresses of Colonias, Dibre, &c., where
military chiefs held their ground, have readily admitted the supre-
macy of the crescent ; the plains of Thrace, devoured by locusts of
functionaries, trodden down by the unceasing passage of fanatic
hordes, but where distinctions among the tributaries Were swept
away, still cling to the cross.' — Id, p. 43.

In studying the history of municipal bodies in western
Europe, we ought to distinguish between the urban munici-
palities or chartered corporations of the middle ages, and the
rural municipalities, or rather commonalties. The former arose
in the towns or burghs out of the chaos of feudality, and were
unconnected with the surrounding country. They represented
imperfectly the ancient Roman municipia from which they
took their name. They enjoyed privileges and monopolies
rather than liberties^ and this was at the expense of the country

On Qeographicai and Statistical Knowledge. 267

around. Such were the imperial towns ; and such several
of the Swiss republics^ Ziirich, Bern, Basle, Freyburg, re-
mained till very lately. In Italy, France, Spain^ and other
monarchies, the urban municipalities lost their privileges }
the crown, having once conquered' the nobles, attacked the
immunities of the towns, and assumed the right of nominating
the municipal authorities. But the rural districts were left
in most of these countries undisturbed in the enjoyment of
their popular administration, and this was no small boon to
them. In France, strange as it may sound, all municipal and
communal independence was destroyed by the republican eon^
Btitution of 1793. It was sacrificed for the system of cen-
tralizing all administrative power in the capital, which
has remained in vigour ever since, and was introduced by
the French into the countries which they invaded. The
attentive observer and investigator of all these and similar
facts will easily account for the apparent anomalies in the
'conduct of the peasantry in several parts of Europe during
the political vicissitudes of the last forty years.

The religion and religious opinions of a people are matters
of too serious importance, they exert too great an influence
over its intellectual and moral habits to be passed over
slightly by any wise man. In themselves they cannot be fit
objects either of blame or ridicule, for in most cases they
are above the choice or control of the individuals who pro-
fess them. To the political geographer they are essential
facts^ which he must take into account together with their
ascertained consequences, in his estimate of the condition
and capabilities of a nation. Not only the religious belief,
but the manner in which that belief is promulgated and
enforced, and the influence which it has upon the civil
and social state, upon the domestic and economical habits
of its disciples, ought to be noticed. The perpetual celibacy
enfojrced upon whole classes of men, the abstinence from
certain articles of food, the number of holidays, the moral
censorship exercised in certain countries by the parish clergy;
the religious regulations of marriage and divorce; the offer-
ings, the dues, the sacrifices exacted by various forms of
worship, the spirit of proselytism of some, and the into-
lerance of others, the fatalism of the Mohammedans, — all
these are facta which influence the condition of millions.
The shallow-minded scoff at them; the attentive observer
acknowledges their power, discriminates between their evil
and their good effects, for there is hardly a religion that
has not some good points about it ; and if he be a right-
hearted man, he will pity the aberrations of the consci-
eotious votary, while he will expose the hypocrisy oi the

268 On Geographical ofid Statistical Knowledge.

wilful impostor. Connected with the subject of religion,
although distinct from it, is the establishment for its worship.
The number of the clergy, their mode of education and ordi-
nation, their various ranks and gradations, their relations with
the other classes of society, their means and mode of livings the
distinction between those who have the charge of churches,
parishes, or districts, and those who are without any fixed
duties; between those who live in communities, such as
monks, friars, dervishes, &.C., and those who live alone, either
single or with their families ; the amount of their income,
collective and relative; the establishments appropriated to their
instruction, — all these are subjects of inquiry for the political
description of a country, as well as the division of that country
into parishes and dioceses^ the number of churches and
temples, and the mode of religious and moral instruction
afforded to the people. Statements concerning these matters
should be made upon authentic authorities when these can be
obtained, and not vaguely exaggerated or distorted after the
manner of an absurd estimate, which found its way not long
since into several periodicals and newspapers concerning the
clergy of Spain, in which the number of Spanish archbishops
and bishops was stated to be above 700; the parishes 127,000;
the convents and monasteries 181,000 ; and the monks, nuns,
and secular clergy, in round numbers about 1,000,000, that is
to say, about nine times as many as the reality. A single
glance at the map of Spain might have shown the impossibility
of the thing. The mere knowledge of the gross amount of
the population of the peninsula would have shown the fallacy :
every third grown up man, according to this statement^ must
have been a priest or monk. The mistake has arisen from
having confounded the statistics of the whole Spanish monarchy
as it was in the time of Philip II. with those of Spain in the
nineteenth century.

The importance of education, elementary and scientific,
school and collegiate, its immense influence over the moral,
domestic, and economical habits of the people, and their social
and political condition, cannot be doubted by any person of com-
mon sense. In a geographical inquiry, due attention should be
paid to the difference between the establishment for popular and
elementary education, of which all are susceptible, and which
all ought to have in a well-regulated country ; and those appro-
priated to scientific instruction, which, in the actual state of
society, can only be administered to comparatively few ; the
manner in which those various establishments are administered,
the funds by which they are supported, &c.

And lastly, political geography should consider the popula-
tion of a country with regard to its descent or race, and its Ian-

Oft Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 209

guage. Without entering into the question of the origin of
races, it can be safely asserted that various nations have each
peculiar features of character and disposition. Some of these
appear to proceed from the climate and nature of the country,
while others are retained even after emigration. Some races
are lively, others sober and calm, some rash and impetuous,
others thoughtful and cautious ; some are impassioned and
amorous^ others phlegmatic and cold. These are facts which^
when generally ascertained, ought to be stated, as they may
exert considerable influence on the political condition of a
people. Language is another important element of geogra-
phical classification. It generally, but not always, accom-
panies the distinction of races, and also frequently determines
their political boundaries. Populations speaking different
languages, or at least languages of different origin, will
seldom voluntarily amalgamate. Language is the reflexion
of thought, it is the mirror of the feelings and sympathies
of a people. Ignorance or carelessness of these distinctions
in a reasoner on general politics produces an unpleasant
discord to the ears of the better informed^ and spoils the
effect of his otherwise plausible arguments. We will quote
one instance out of many. In the late contest between Mehe-
met Ali, Pasha of Egypt, and the Sultan Ibrahim, Mehemet's
son-in-law and general, while besieging the fortress of Acre,
being asked how far, after the taking of that place, he
meant to advance, is reported to have answered, ' As far as
I can make myself understood in Arabic' Arabic is the pre-
vailing, language in all Syria, as far north as the chain of
Mount Taurus, which divides that country from Anatoli or
Asia Minor, where Turkish is the language of the country.
This expression, so graphic and so significant, has been com-
pletely spoiled in a paper on the present state of the Turkish
empire, which appeared some time since in a contemporary
Journal. The writer puts the above words in the mouth
of Ibrahim, not at Acre, where he had still a vast tract of
country before him where Arabic is spoken, but at Konieh,
after his victory over the Grand Vizier in the centre of
Asia Minor, where Turkish is the language of the people,
and where, therefore, the sentence would have been absurd,
as Ibrahim had left far behind him the boundaries within
which Arabic is spoken. He had crossed Taurus, and ad-
vanced into Asia Minor, in order to oblige the Sultan to give
him the countries in which Arabic is the language of the people,
and into which he withdrew as soon as the demand was granted.
The distinction is more important than it would seem at a
first glance. The power of Mehemet Ali is essentially Ara-
bian ; it is supported by Arab troops ; and his dominions extend

270 On Oeographical and SiaHstieal Knowledge.

over a country in which the Arab language and race have been
long predominant From the timeof theCaHphs; whiie the Otto-
man's direct dominion on that side extends chiefly over countries
where the Turkish and Turcoman races who came from Tar-
tary are become indigenous. It is, therefore, a clearly marked
ethnographic, as well as geographic division, and, as such,
likely to prove permanent.

We have now briefly stated the various branches of geogra-
phical information, which are necessary in order to constitute
a man thoroughly acquainted with the actual condition of any
given country. We do not mean to say that they can all be
attained in every instance, and we do not intend to discourage
our readers, if they should find that in many cases much of this
information is beyond their reach ; let them endeavour to obtain
as much as they can of the information above specified ; the
more they collect, the better qualified they will be to form an
opinion. But to imagine that, without taking pains> without
making any of the inquiries alluded to, ^y means of mere
vague information gathered from indiscriminate readings from
conversational hearsay, from scraps of newspapers and travel*
lers* sketch-books, a man can be enabled to talk pertinently
about a foreign country, and pass his judgment on the people,
is a fallacy which strikes us as most palpably absurd.

With regard to the sources from which geographical and politi-
cal information may be derived, we may remark that professed
statistical works, which are now fast multiplying in most Eu-
ropean countries^ and which give the various heads that we have
noticed, ought to be consulted in preference to mere desultory
and general descriptions which are deficient in classification.
For each particular country, statistical works by natives of the
same, where such can be obtained, ought to be preferred.
And on this occasion we cannot too much recommend the
study of foreign languages, as a most useful medium of correct
information on foreign matters. It is almost impossible to
ascertain many facts without applying to native authorities.
We may point out perhaps, in some future Numbers, the best
works to be consulted on several particular countries of Europe.
Maps are another indispensable auxiliary for obtaining correct
geographical knowledge. There has been, till lately, a great
deficiency in this respect ; maps were generally bad and dear.
There are now very good maps published in France, Italy,
Germany, &c., of the various divisions of those countries;
but they are difficult to be obtained in England, and they are
expensive. The maps published by the Society of Useful
Knowledge have been constructed on the best existing autho-
rities, and their extreme cheapness makes them accessible to
almost everyone.

On Geographical and Statistical Knowledge. 271

We would now, in conclusion, address ourselves more par-
ticularly to writers on foreign countries, whether geographers,
travellers, essayists, novelists, or contributors to periodicals.
We would impress upon them the propriety, the necessity of
discriminating and ascertaining facts before they put forth
their statements, of making use of the art of a critic in examin-
ing their authorities ; of avoiding generalities and the use of
superlatives ; and of such hackneyed epithets as ' barbarous,
slavish, fanatical, bigoted, lazy, cowardly,' which are seldom
' applicable to whole nations, at least within Europe ; of stating

facts before opinions, and, when they have no facts to
' state, of not dealing in surmises and hazarded inferences.

We have already exemplified our remarks on this subject
' in speaking of Italy * ; we may do it again with regard to

' other countries, for we think it is our duty to combat error

under whatever shape it may show itself. No national or
1 political partiality ought to stand in the way of truth, for error

' can never be a good auxiliary even in a good cause. We would

■ impress upon all writers a due sense of the responsibility which

I they incur by propagating erroneous or hasty judgments and

y opinions. Men should ibe even more cautious about what they

I write than about what they speak ; but we fear the reverse is most

i commonly the case. What is said in conversation is often

unheeded, and generally forgotten ; while everything that goes
forth in print is sure to attract the attention of many, perhaps
I of thousands, and to be remembered by some. Hence the masa

of prejudices, already, one would think, sufficiently great, is
daily increasing. And that prejudice will bring forth prac-
tical mischief, who can doubt? In these times, when most
people read something, the danger becomes much greater. In
countries where a great proportion of the people take a part in
political questions, and have a voice, although indirect, in the
legislature, who can calculate the consequences of erroneous
impressions spread among them concerning other countries }
It is not the first time that nations have waged destructive wars
against each other, through irrational prejudices which they had
imbibed from their parents ojt teachers. At all events, war baa
ever been carried on in a deeper spirit of atrocity when one or
each of the parties boked upon the other as barbarians, slaves,
or infidels. Witness the wars of Rome, those of the Turks>
and others which we might mention. Men feel little compunc-
tion in tormenting and exterminating those whom they con-
sider as a degraded race.

* Se« Nos. IV, and VIII. of this Journal.

( 272 )

SOCIETY FOR SUPPRESSION OF JUVENILE VAGRANCY.

There is an unfortunate class of our fellow-countrymen who
live in small lodgings^ tier above tier^ in every dark alley of this
vast metropolis. Ihere is one narrow staircase commoa to all
the inhabitants of each house, and the partitions are so thin
that they can scarcely be said to ensure domestic privacy.
Thus each individual has not only the inconveniences incident
to his own immediate family to put up with, but the screams
of all the ill-fed and worse-managed children of every family
in the house. He hears the jangling of each unhappy couple,
the brutality of each drunken husband ; in short, every painful
and disagreeable circumstance that can arise in such a dis-
jointed, unnatural association, is immediately made known
to him.

There can be no peace, no quiets no comfort, in such a home
as this. The husband, ill brought up perhaps himself, and with
little principle to regulate his conduct, avoids it as much as he
can. It was perhaps no very exalted sentiment that linked
him to a female, and it is only, therefore, for the purpose of
selfish gratification that he resorts to her society ; it is to the
gin-shop that he looks for enjoyment : while she, not more re-
strained than her husband, and wounded perhaps in her feel-
ings by the brutal neglect, if not more violent ill treatment of
the man who ought to protect and cherish her, scruples but
little as to the indulgences she permits herself; and licentious-
ness, with all its horrid accompaniments of disease, heartless-
ness, and misery, is, we fear, of too frequent occurrence under
such circumstances.

Uncertainty as to parentage thus produced, aggravating the
evil, falls with redoubled weight upon the heads of the unfor-
tunate children, who are ill-used, spurned, and deserted.
These unprotected beings, nurtured in vice, habituated to
witness the most revolting profligacy from their cradles, and
permitted, nay, often urged to commit crimes by the very per-
sons who ought to be the natural guardians of their innocence
— ^these poor fatherless, motherless children, who are ready to
flood society with a race of beings opposed to its very exist-
ence; whose hands would be against every man, and every
man's hand against them, have become the objects of earnest
solicitude to a number of benevolent individuals^ who have
associated themselves for the sake of rescuing them from
destruction ; of preventing society from being injured by
their crimes, and of benefiting our colonies by sending out to
them youths who have first become acquainted with the nature

Society for the Suppression of Juvenile T^agranctf. '273

of moral obligation, the consolation of religion, and have ac-
quired some skill in manual employments. To children of the
above description the society appears at first to have confined
itself; but as its views became more extended, upon discovering
the demand for juvenile labour in our colonies^ the children of
respectable parents, who are disabled by misfortune from sup-
porting their families, orphans, children chargeable upon
parishes, all, in fact, who are found to be supernumerary in
this country, or may themselves be desirous of emigrating, have
been included in their scheme.

The plan which the society has adopted and pursued is as
follows : — A fit master having been in the first instance sought
out, a number of children were collected in certain premises,
with a portion of land attached to them, at Hackney Wick, in
the immediate neighbourhood of London. These children
have had not only the advantage of all the instruction usually
given at the national schools, but pains have been taken to
habituate them to patient and intelligent labour : they are taught
to. mend their own clothes and shoes, cook their own victuals^
rear their own vegetables and other produce of the land ; and,
in fact; not only to perform 6very service of whatever kind for
themselves, but to do whatever else is likely to render theih
useful and intelligent members of an infant community. To
what advantage the labour of the boys has been employed
upon the land we do not know ; but we feel convinced that
active boys, employed under good direction upon the soil^
should, particularly in the neighbourhood of the metropolis^
earn a very considerable proportion of the expenses of their
maintenance.

To give a perfect education, extending as it must do through
a long period of time, was by no means the object of this esta-
blishment ; it was for the purpose of receiving children either
standing on the verge of crime, or already imbued with vicious
habits, and of educating them to such a point that their former
bias might be counteracted, and that when placed, according to
the intention of the society, in a sphere of activity and useful-
ness, the only one in which virtue can thrive, hope might with
good reason be entertained of them for the future.

In order that the discipline of the school might not depend
upon the amount of active interest taken in its well being by the
Committee of Management, which, of course, must be in-*
fluenced by a variety of circumstances, a well-considered
code of laws for the regulation of the little colony has been
framed, which we doubt not will much assist in keeping the
school up to the standard so necessary for the success of the
undertaking. We here extract a few of the regulations.

Jan.^April, 1834. V T

•274 Society /br (he Suppreuim ofJnvenile Vagrancy.

* SL Each boy, after medical examination, and on admission to tlie
school, to be well washed in a warm bath, under the direction of the
medical gentleman who examines him, and to have his hair cut
short.

* 3. The boys to be numbered from No. 1 upwards, and entered
upon a roll ; the name, the age, size, previous mode of life, and ex-
lent of acquirements on admission to be noted.

' 6. Each division to be placed by the master under the charge of
a boy, selected by kirn for good conduct^ to be called a monitor.

* 8. The master has supreme authority in the school, obedience to
him is the first duty of every boy.

' 10. Each boy to have a separate hammock.

* 11. Nightly inspection at irregular hours of the boys* dormitory,
to secure decent and orderly conduct.

'12. Morning, the boys' names to be called; wash, personal
cleanliness to be very strictly enforced ; a place for everything, and
everything in iis place.

* 13. When the weather is unfavourable (6t field labour, the boys
to be employed in learning some useful trade, such as the committee
may from time to time approve. They should be taught also to
grind their own corn in hand-mills, make their own bread, cook
their own ttieat

' 18. Any boy guilty of falsehood, to be placed in solitkry con-
finement for three hours, and for every repetition of the oflence an
hour additional. If a monitor, to be reduced, and not again ap-
pointed until after long probation ; the punishment for every oath
or bad language to be the same as above.

' 20. Flogging or blows are strictly forbidden ; and no task to be
given from Scripture as a punishment.'

In addition to these regulations^ there are also certain printed
instructions for the direction of the master^ of which the fol-
lowing arfe some extracts : —

* 1. The master is placed directly under the orders of the School
Committee, who will hold him strictly responsible for the correct,
active, and vigilant discharge of his duties*

* 3. The master must enforce strict discipline, prompt obedience,
and perfect regularity among the boys entrusted to his care ; in so
doing he will, however, constantly bear in mind, that gentlenes-s
and kind treatment must be the rule, and severity the exception.

' 4. A weekly progress rule must be kept by the master, and sent
to the committee on its days of meeting. In this document, the
character, conduct, and progress of each boy is to be carefully noted,
with such other observations as the master may think proper to
bring under the notice of the committee. A registry of punishment
to be annexed.

' 5. The master will also prepare a monthly return of boys fit
for home or colonial situations. This return to be sent regularly
to the secretary for the information of the committee.

* 6. The master must make himself intimately acquainted with

Society for tne Suppression ofJuveitile P^agrancp. 275

the character and disposition of ieach toy* and act actordingly. He
will generally find that kind words, and above all strict justice, and
impartiality^ will secure to hiih their affection ^ud respect, which,
when once acquired, he will experience but little difficulty in mould
ing them to his wish. It is, however, required that he should at
all times act with spirit and firmness, and, when requisite^ awe the
refractory into instant obedience by summary punishment. Obedi-
ence is to be consiaered the first duty of the boys ; mildness, com-
bined with inflexible determination, is considered that of the master.
He will endeavour as much as possible to govern them through the
medium of their affections ; but will never forgei that discipline must
be maintained.

• 8. The master Will keep a vigilant eye upon the several ihonitbrs
of divisions, and his constant attention must be directed towards
rendering them efficient instruments in aiding him to keep good
order in the establishment. His instt'uetions to them must be clear
and precise, and delivered in mild language^ and in a very distinct
tone of voice ; he will also select, from among their number, one to
act as a geheral monitor/

As the scheme of the society became enlarged ^ and not only
the youthful delinquent, but the children of honest parents
also were received^ and as a large demand for juvenile emi-
grants was found to exist, the society it seems began to rfelax
in the rule which it had laid down in the first instance, and
several detachments of children were shipped to meet the de-
mand for them before they had undergone ariy lengthened
probation at the asylum. The school, therefore, appears to
us to have at this time lost much of its original usefulness.

With regard to the children who are received by the society
with a positively, or even negatively good character, there may
not exist any necessity for their undergoing the satne probation
with the rest, and they might perhaps with a safe conscience
be immediately shipped for the colonies ; as we are of opinion,
that the circumstances in which they would there be placied,
by calling forth all their energies and by placing before them
distinctly the reward for labour, would be the best of school-
masters. But as regards the offspring of vicious parents, and
those children who are known to have been themselves guilty,
we do not think the society is justified in sending them forth^
until a proper discipline in the asylum shall have given them
habits of industry, and of acting from principle. We, there-
fore, should consider the division of the youths into two classes
as an improvement ; the first might be shipped fdr the colonic^
upon the first opportunity after their reception ; the second, be-
fore being shipped, should undergo a probation in the asylum.
Such a course of proceeding as this would not, we are inclined
to tbink^ narrow the society's plan of emigration, tvhile it irould

276 Society for the Suppression of Juvenile Fitgrnncy.

make their school a mean of doing good with a less admixture
of evil than could otherwise be the case. To giv.e a previous
education to all whom the demand for labour in the colonies
might thus require to be sent from England would be impos-
sible; but not so to the unfortunate class which was the first
object of solicitude to the society. In justice to the society^ it
must however be stated, that the conduct of even the first
detachments of boys, among whom were many imbued with
vicious habits, has not been such as to call forth complaint.

The demand for juvenile labour in the colony having, in the
first instance, heen ascertained, the next step was to form a
committee there for regulating the destination of the children
upon their arrival, and to settle the pecuniary arrangements of
the society ; when this had been done, sixty-nine boys from
Hackney Wick were shipped, in the form of a school with its
monitors, for the Cape of Good Hope. Of those who first
sailed, the society has received most gratifying intelligence, the
masters being satisfied with the boys, and the boys with their
new situations. Several other exportations have also been
made, but sufficient time has not yet elapsed for the receipt of
intelligence respecting them all. The total of youthful emi-
grants has amounted, in this first year of their exportation, to
266 boys and 26 girls.

The society has not only the advantage of doing good, but
of doing it with benefit to its own funds, a circumstance which
will enable it to extend the sphere of its usefulness to other
regions of the world, and to send forth a population not like a
pestilence to blight young societies in their bud, but one that
will add to the moral power and real vigour of any they may
incorporate themselves with. This, we believe, has been the
first instance of children emigrating. As inhabitants of a new
colony, they have the advantage over grown persons in every
particular. The children arrive without any prejudices
upon their minds, and are ready to conform themselves to
and take advantage of whatever circumstances they may be
placed in ; whereas persons of mature age have as much to
unlearn as to learn ; it is long before they can habituate them-
selves to what must be so totally at variance with what they
have been accustomed to in. the mother-country. It is up-hill
work with them ; they begin life twice over. The young emi-
grants arrive without incumbrances, without wives or children ;
they are unfettered, and after a time free to apply all their
energies in contending with the difficulties of their situation
with the greatest possible advantage. The youthful emi-
grant has but one mouth to feed, and one back to clothe ; add
to this, he is not turned out raw and ignorant, but, from his

Society for the Suppression of Juvenile Vagrancy. 277

previous apprenticeship, has become well acquainted with the
actual state of things at the risk of his master^ and, before he
actually enters into life, has been educated and instructed for
it as it is there. The reverse of this is the case with the adult
emigrant, who is accompanied by a family ; he has to contend,
under the greatest possible disadvantage, with difficulties, of the
nature of which he is utterly ignorant ; he lands generally
knowing but little what he is to do, or what he is likely to meet
with ; he has all to learn, and that, by the way of experiment,
at his own cost. Besides this, however elated he may be with
the hope of success, still the circumstance of complete sepa-
ration from those whom blood and friendship have bound to
him, must always afflict him. No connexions formed late in
life have associations so pleasing as those entered into at an
earlier period ; we must not only perceive together, but re-
collect together. What an hour that is which we pass with
an old friend in recalling the things which time has mel-
lowed in the distance ; when we touch occasionally a chord,
which vibrates as though it were then that the circumstance
was occurring ! They have not this. The young emigrant
has all his ties to form. From birth, perhaps, an outcast from
society, of uncertain origin, unjustly branded with a stigma
from this circumstance, it is probable that he has but few ties
in the mother-country. The colony will easily be recognized
by such an emigrant as his home.

If it be granted, as we think it must, that emigrants of the
description under consideration have advantages which no
others can have, we also contend that, for the colonists them-
selves, this is the exact description of persons they should be the
most solicitous of obtaining, for they arrive at the precise period
of life when they become the most useful and profitable servants.
The colonists have not the expense of rearing them up from
infancy, nor of supporting their aged relatives ; they stand alone,
ready to return hard labour for the lengthened period of five
or six years, for the sum of 12Z., paid to the society, with food,
lodging, clothing, good treatment, medical assistance when re-
quisite, and a small sum for pocket-money, to be withheld in
the event of bad conduct.

Now let it be borne in mind that this valuable service,
certain in point of duration, is obtained at this low rate in the
very countries where labour is of the greatest value, where
labour is the thing, of all others, the most difficult to be ob-
tained at any price — we have heard of emigrants who have
been obliged to leave their property, which they have shipped
from England at immense cost to rot upon the beach for want
of assistance in removing it to their intended habitation;;. We

978 Society fixr H$ Suppression of Juvenile Fagrancy.

think H would be difTicuU to discover any other circuniats^nces
under >vhich bei^efits so great can be reciprocally conferred.
Although the exertions of the society have at present been almost
entirely restricted to boys, it is aware of the importance^ both
moral and political, of extending them to the other sex.
Already, as has been noticed, twenty-six girls have been sent;
but it is now proposed, and indeed we understand that mea-
sures have been taken, to keep up the emigration of girls to
as large an amount as that of the boys ; and a committee of
ladies either has been or will be formed in England, for the
purpose of superintending an asylum of a similar descriptioi^
to that of the boys at Hackney Wick, while correspoodiiig
arrangements will be piade in the colonies for attending to
the female children after their landing.

Upon the first batches of boys being sent by the society^ in
consequence of the committee not being sufficiently expe-
rienced in making arrangements with captains of vessels and
shipowners, the children were not treated on the passage by
any means in so satisfactory a manner as could be wished^.
As the children ha^ been requested to write word back re-
specting their ^reatmept, the society became acquainted with
the fact, and a plan has subseq\:(ently been devised to obviate
the recurrence of such fibuse. A gentleman belonging to the
society, who is well acquainted with such matters, personally
inspects the vessel and accommoda^tions, and stipulates for the
exact rations and piethod of treatment while on board. But the
paternal care of the society is not limited to education in the
asylqm, and to emigration, and apprenticeship in the colony.
The arrangements that have been made in those colonies to
which it has l^ithertp sent children, and which will be made in
all to which it may hereafter send them, enable it to. enforce
the regulations which have been framed with regard to the
treatment of the children by their masters : so that those who
place children undeif its protection may feel an assurance^ not
only thi^t they will obtain every advantage in the asylum, be
well treated on the voyage, be placed out in situations most
suited to their abilities and dispositions upon arriving at the
colony, but that during the whole period of apprenticeship they
will be able to obtain immediate redress for any ill-treatment
they may be subjected to. The following is the printed form
of indenture^ which all masters who receive apprentices are
under an obligation to sign.

* This, hoi^ever, does not apply to the first batch which went out in the
Charles Kerr, for the children were treated while on board with parental kind-
ness, and it is but justice to the captaiu of the vessel to mention the circum-
stauee.

Sm9iy jftir the Suppremon 0/ Juvenile FUgrnncjf, 270

s No.

^ This Indenture, made day of 183 — , in

* witJiesseth that of -. , actini^ by the authority, and

in the name and on thebehaif of the Committee of Mana(rement for
Juvenile Emigrants, and as such duly appointed superintending

[ guardians of , a minor, and with the full and free will and

^ consent of the said — — < — , doth for, and in consideration of the

I sum of Pounds sterling, well and truly paid into the said

I Committee, put, place, and bind, the said , of the age of

^ years, or thereabouts, to be an Apprentice with

of ■ ■ -, and as an Apprentice with the said — •, to dwel}
^ from the date of these presents, until the expiration of the full term

i of years, or until the ; during which time the said

Apprentice his said Master shall faithfully serve and obey, his
secrets keep, and his lawful commands every^yhere gladly to do
1 and perform according to bis power, wit and ability; and honestly,

K soberly, orderly, and obediently, in all things demean and behave him-

I self towards his Master, and all those who, by the command of his

. said Master, will hate any authority over him during the said Term.

And the said *--•—*-, in consideration of the faithful services to
be performed by the said Apprentice, doth hereby covenant and

agree with the said ■ »- in his capacity aforesaid, that h^ th^

said ^ shall the said Apprentice in the Art, Trade, Mystery,

or Employment of teach and instruct, or cause to be

taught and instructed, in the best way and manner that he can
during the said Term, and shall and will, during all the Term
aforesaid, find and provide the said Apprentice with sufficient meat,
drink, apparel, lodging, washing, medical treatment, and all other
things necessary and fit for an Apprentice ; and also shall the said
Apprentice diligently and faithfully instruct, or cause to be instructed,
in the principles of the Christian Religion, in reading and writing ;
and shall not treat the said Apprentice with hardship or severity, on
pain of forfeiture of his right to the. services of the said Apprentice, on
due proof thereof before any competent tribunal ; and on conviction,
the future services of the said Apprentice shall be at the sole dis-
posal of the Committee of Management for the time being, and that
he shall allov^ the said Apprentice, weekly, the sum of twelvepence,
one-third part thereof to be paid to the said Apprentice every
Saturday, and the remaining two-thirds thereof to be paid into the
Savings Bank, for, and in the name, and on behalf of the said
Apprentice monthly, during the whole Term, and not to be with*
drawn therefrom until the expiration of his Term of Apprentice-
ship ; but in the event of 'misconduct or disobedience of the Ap-
prentice, the said Master, at his discretion, shall pay the whole sura
or weekly allowance into the hatida of the Commiiiee^ and not pay
any portion thereof to the said Apprentice.

And the said shall not cede over or assign the said

Apprentice to any other person, or persons, nor take him out of the
polony, without the written consent of the Committee ofManagemeQt

280 Sociefyfor the Suppreision of Juvenile Vagrancy.

for the time beings ; and, whenever thereto required by the said Com«
mittee, shall produce the said Apprentice for examination.
Thus done and executed, &c.

With most associatioDs, it has been generally the practice
to expend large and unnecessary sums upon the buildings and
other matters which are by no means intimately connected
with the main object ; and their funds have frequently been
exhausted, not in carrying on the business which they have un-
dertaken with ardour, but in making an appearance before
the world. It was, therefore, with much gratification that,
upon visiting the asylum at Hackney Wick, vie saw the reverse
io be the case. One large room, lofty, and consequently
healthy, serves for all purposes, except cooking. It is there
that the hammocks are swung, the children are instructed,
and eat; the office too, at which the general business is
conducted, is shared with another society. In fact, the strictest
regard to economy appears to have influenced all the proceed-
ings of this society. But since the success of the experiment
made by the society has demonstrated the possibility of ap-
prenticing children in the colonies with pecuniary advantage
to those who send them forth, we understand that it has be-
come the subject of mercantile speculation to one individual,
and may become so to many more : we do therefore sincerely
hope, for the sake of the poor children, that such an attempt
will not succeed, and that the society will obtain, and obtain
alone, the support both of this country and of the colonies.
A^ soon as gain becomes the object of those who intermeddle
with matters of this description, the happiness of the poor
children becomes entirely a secondary consideration. Their
moral and physical comfort will probably be neglected, and
every arrangement made with reference to the profit that can
be derived from it.

It required all the exertions of the society acting with a
parental feeling towards the objects of their charity, to secure
proper treatment for the children in the vessels in which they
were sent out. Encroachments were attempted to be made on
their personal comfort in one vessel, by stowing goods into
part of the space which had been engaged for them, and it
required much foresight to secure to the children proper ra-
tions during the voyage, and prevenftheir morals from being
containinated by associating with the sailors in the vessel.
Now if the emigration of children were to be undertaken
by any persons with merely ^mercantile views, is it likely
that all the above circumstances would be attended to with
the care they now are, by persons acting entirely from a
charitable motive ? Is it not rather probable that such persons

Society for the Suppression ofJuveiiile Vagrancy. 281

i would, on the contraiy, consider the least cost at which they
could send the children out ? Is it likely that stipulations
would be made with the masters in the colonies, to guard

1^ against the abuse of power, and that the eye of guardianship

I would be extended over the whole period of apprenticeship, as

fi it is by.this society ?

t This account is but brief, but we trust it is sufficient to prove

!i that the Society for the Suppression of Juvenile Vagrancy is

I worthy of the support of the country, and of the attention of

3 parishes, which will enable the society, with prudence, to en-

s large the scale of its proceedings, establish branch societies

i throughout the country, and not only send emigrants to the

t Cape, but also to the Canadas, Australia^ and any other

I healthy colonies that may have a demand for industry and in-

ii telligence.

IB It gives us much pleasure to announce the Princess Victoria

((. as the patroness of this society. Royalty does well to sanction

I such laudable attempts in favour of suffering humanity.

f EARLY EDUCATION.

Early education comprises the elements of the future hap-
piness or misery, virtue or vice, greatness or goodness of the
individual ; a truth perhaps hardly sufficiently considered,
otherwise education would be less frequently entrusted to the
weak, the ignorant, or the injudicious. The stability of a build-
ing depends upon the firmness of its foundation ; the virtue of
man upon the excellence of his early education. It is true,
that the grandeur, beauty, or utility of the finished structure
may alone be observable ; but the judgment and skill of the
architect must have been equally exercised in the foundation
upon which the edifice is raised. Whether we believe children
to be born with evil dispositions, or whether we consider all
their ideas and dispositions to be acquired notions, — education
must equally correct the one, or form the other.

The phrase * elementary education' would seem, in its ordinary
acceptation, merely to apply to instruction in reading and spell-
ing ; but the child who is unmanageable in the nursery will be
unmanageable in the school-room, and activity of intellect will
be fostered or deadened, according to the nature of the early
discipline, before the child has learned to speak. It is im-
possible to separate moral from intellectual education ; intel-
lectual cannot be efficiently conducted independent of moral
education, and we maintain the converse to be equally true*
That development of the faculties, which is necessary to the

283 Eitrly Eduealiw.

acquisition and application of knowledge^ is equally essential
to the acquisition of morality — reason and observation are as
important in the one as in the other: thus the two branches5
although apparently distinct, grow from the same stem. He
who cannot reason, and whose perceptions are dull and torpid,
will be no more moral than he who only possesses a welUstored-
memory will be a really wise man. It follows, then, that the
faculties which enable us to act from virtuous motives, and the
faculties which are employed in the acquisition of knowledge,
are originally the same ; and a well-regulated education will
begin by practically cultivating those faculties, since from them
are to spring all moral as well as all intellectual results.

Early education is almost universally in the bands of fe-
males, according to a wise provision of nature ; their habits
and characters being peculiarly adapted to the purpose. Wo-
men are naturally devoted to the minor operations of life ; they
can dwell with interest and patience upon the trifles that make
up the lives of children, and it is upon the direction of these
seeming trifles that future greatness (and this term also in-
cludes goodness) wilt depend. The present artificial system
of female education very much unfits women for the task which
nature has so clearly assigned to them ; gentleness, placid firm-
ness, evenness of temper, watchfulness, tenderness, and that
quiet discretion, which is usually called good sense, are the
characteristics of an unspoiled woman ; and surely these are
the qualifications which are best adapted to check the peevish
and violent^ to encourage the idle or timid, and, above all, to
give an example of vrhat is virtuous and rational to those
little beings "whose future happiness depends so much on a
mother's care and discretion.

The first six years in the lives of children demand as much
or more watchfulness on the part of their guardians as any
other period of their youth ; yet it is generally believed, that
if they be carefully fed, clothed, washed, and taught to read,
or rather made to stammer over a book, the duties towards
them are perfectly fulfilled ; if they should have become wilful
and unmanageable, (and this is a general case,) they are sent
to school to be corrected, because little master or miss cannot
longer be controlled at home. At school, as elsewhere, the
influence of a bad example is as powerful as that of a good
one, and unless unremitting vigilance be exercised, the inno-
cent minded >yill be corrupted by their associates. Fear of
personal chastisement, or severe punishment, produces habits
of deceit, and those are the happiest and the most honoured who
are most successful in deceiving their instructors. What will
be their struggles, when^ at a riper age, they perceive and would

Earl}^ Educatifm. 283

correct their errors ! Haw much more severe are the pangs
they will th^n suffer^ than the rational privations and restraints
of childhood wovild hsive inflicted ! And how many are there
who never arrive at a sense of their moral degradation ! Let it
also he remembered^ that the evil goes on increasing ; for per*
s»ons so educated:* and so dead to moral virtue, will assuredly
' visit the sins of the fathers upon the chil^ren.^

ParentSt and mothers most especially^ must learn that their
parental duties have not ceased when the personal comforts of
their children are provided for ; that it is on their example,
tfidr attention, iheir firmness^ that much of the moral worth
of their offspring depends.

Whatever be their situation in society, all^ or pearly all^
hav^ the means of inculcating and enfor<:ing the early and
habitual practice of virtue. The nursery, the school-room,
and the world, are alike the scenes of evil passions, restrained
or encQuraged, corrected or triumphant ; but in the first there
is a presiding power^ which will retain or lose its influence in
the subsequent scenes of life, according as it is well or ill em-*
ployed in the first and opening stage : a power which will be
silently, but deeply acknowledged, reverenced^ and remem-
bered, in after years, when its worth can be appreciated, and
its ejects manifested — this power is possessed by every sen-
sible, judicious, and wisely affectionate mother ; and let her
deem it as one of her highest privileges^ that to her is confided
the happiness of implanting those seeds of virtue and morality^
i^pon the culture and growth of which will depend the future
welfare of her children.

It is impossible to lay down systems of education, which
shall embrace all particulars ; a general system may be re*
commended, subject to the modifications which the various
cl^arapters of children demand. But as no precise and uni-
versal rules can be given, it is the more important that early,
education should be confided to judicious persons, whose con-
duct is regulated by the motives which they wish to inculcate^
a^d whose judgement is clear, firm, and mature.

The first manifestations of the dawnings of reason are
shown before the power of speech is attained ; children signify
by imperfect sounds what they desire to obtain, and become
violent when their wishes are not complied with. It is the
mother's part to watch the moment when she can make the
Uttle tyrant comprehend that desires so expressed will not be
gratified, and to show that a contrary mode of conduct will be
successful, when the object desired is not considered im-
proper. From this point she must proceed, step by step,
until she makes her pupil know by repeated experiei[ice, that,
he is not to obey his first impulse, and that self-control^ a

284 Early Education.

thing which even an infant can comprehend, is necessary
to his own comfort. Example has been pronounced the
best instructor in the arts ; and so it is in education. Those
who undertake that great and interesting duty must first learn
to know themselves, and to command themselves. An angry
look, a violent action, an over-harsh word, will undo hours of
advice upon the necessity of a well-regulated temper. Un-
reasonableness, irregularity, insincerity ^ and indolence of mind
or body, will overturn precepts however well worded and judi*
ciously expressed.

Theory is only comprehensible to a child when illustrated by
practice. ' I shall do or say so, because mamma or papa does
or says so,' is an unanswerable argument, and an excuse for,
or a defence of what is wrong. ^ Do as I say^ and not as I
doy is unintelligible to a child. Parents or preceptors are at
first supposed by their children or pupils to be perfect in con-
duct ; their very authority and power invest them with a dignity,
which, in the innocent minds of children, presupposes virtue.
When, therefore, they perceive in parents or instructors any
deviation from the rules laid down for their own government,
the opinion as to their virtue sinks as much too low^ as before
it was too elevated.

The operations of a child's mind are sources of deep interest,
and it is with and upon these that the instructor has to work.
Repetition of acts, association and affection, are the foundation
of habits and opinions, as soon as the perceptive powers
are called into exertion. An infant that has been regularly
accustomed to eat and sleep at particular hours will, in a very
short time, become hungry and sleepy at those hours. It is
happy when in the arms of those to whom it is accustomed,
uneasy when with strangers ; its agreeable feelings are asso-
ciated with those with whom it is at ease — this then is the
result of habit.

The association of pleasure with what is right, of pain with
what is wrong, is in fact the true foundation of reward and
punishment; reward and punishment should grow, if possible,
out of the acts which have deserved either ; the commission or
omission, whether of good or evil, should lead to its own
penalty or reward. Severe measures can never be necessary,
except where there is crime ; but this presupposes total early
neglect. To reward is less difficult than to punish: the
former may be founded on affection and conscience, for the
consciousness of rectitude, where a love of right is instilled,
is as strong in childhood as in manhood ; and where self-
control is a ruling power, self- approbation and the praise of
the loving and the loved will be all-sufficient.

The time at which reason begins to show itself in children

I
I

Early Education, 285

g varies considerably : some children are capable of slight con-

jr trol at the age of fourteen months, and even earlier ; others not

1 till eighteen or twenty months. Crying is the means by which,

in earliest infancy, pain^ uneasiness, or hunger, and progres-
sively, the >vish for an object, and anger at being deprived of
the source of amusement, are expressed ; but when the child
has learned to make other sounds, when it has acquired the
many little actions which need not be described to the tender
mother, but which are ever a source of deep interest, (inasmuch
as they are the signs which tell of the gradual development of
the imitative powers, and consequently indicate the existence
of intellect,) it would be easy to accustom the child to make
known its wishes by the use of these sounds or actions. When
this power is acquired, the infant should never be allowed to
obtain its object by crying. We are not going to maintain
that, in a well-regulated nursery, a young child will never be
heard to cry — it has no other means of expressing pain or
uneasiness; but a child who, after the age of fourteen or
sixteen months, is never gratified in its desires when so
signified, will soon cease to express them in this way. The
great difficulty is to convince the child's understanding, when
the wished for object is an improper toy. We would recom-
mend the substitution of some other plaything, and, in the
early stages of discipline, the removal of the source of temp-
tation entirely out of sight : if the child refuses the substitute,
(which rarely happens at a tender age^ because the impressions
on the mind are then slight and easily removed,) the mother
or nurse will manifest by voice or countenance that she is
grieved or displeased ; will remove the child into another room;
will seek by every means short of violence, or weak persuasion,
to remove the improper ideas which have taken possession of
the mind. Very young children have no words, neither can
they altogether comprehend them, and until they have acquired
the power of understanding speech, they must be taught by
actions.

When the child has learned to ask by the means we have
pointed out, all deviation from these means must be resisted,
and all exhibitions of temper be corrected. This is best done
by submitting the pupil to personal inconvenience ^ but, let it
be observed, we do not by this intend personal violence or
chastisement. We have seen a passionate, screaming child
checked in its violence, by holding its hand firmly in one
position ; and on another occasion, the same child, at the age
of nineteen months was cured of a habit of shrieking by
shutting it up for half an hour in a small, but not a dark
closet.

286 Earfy Education,

But there may be tempers which require to be treated in a
di Keren t way from that which we have suggested, and the choice
of means must consequently be left to the judicious parent.*
One invariable rule may be laid down^ that the parent, in en-
deavouring to check the propensities of the child » can never
succeed without uniformity of conduct, and kindness of manner
joined to firmness of purpose. It is of the highest importance
that while we are gaining an ascendancy over the minds of our
children, we do not lose our hold upon their affections.

It has been urged that children should never be rewarded
or punished by means of their appetite. We object to the
adoption of such means as a principle ; but may they not be
effective when judiciously and sparingly employed P For in<^
stance, if the desired possession of fruits, cakes, or sweetmeats,
supposing them not to be injurious to the healthy be vio-
lently expressed, or cause an infringement of discipline, would
it not be right to refuse them, and afterwards to give them occa-
sionally when the conduct has been proper and satisfactory ?
The privation would then be associated with misconduct, the
enjoyment with the reverse.

It should be the care of every parent or guardian not to
expose her child to temptation at an early age. Never-
theless a child must be accustomed to the various ornaments
ef a room, such as the books, which must always be seen
there ; but let it be a rule never at any time to give a child
that which it is at all improper it should afterwards desire.
To exemplify our meanitig fully: ab infant is on its Another's
lap — the attention of the mother being diverted from its imme-
diate amusement^ she gives it her thimble to save herself from
interruption — she does not, at the moment, consider what she

* For the following note the writer of this article is indebted to a member of
tbe Committed, who has had much experience in education. — It freijiiently hap-
pens that manifestations of ill temper, and eren violence on the part of a
child) are attributable wholly to physical causes. The writer of this note suf-
fered, when a child, from roughness and want of moisture in the skin, to such a
degree in winter, that the mere contact of any rough substance, as woollen
eloth, was unendurable, and the necessity for handling the most ordinary objects
sometimes occasioned great irritation of temper, which was attributed by his
friends to moral defect. He has observed like effects to arise from a variety of
causes, as ivant of ventilation, want of aitiple room for exercise, tightness of
dothing, the direct fight of a window falling upon the eyes, (which causes irrita-
tion perhaps more frequently than is supposed,) the use of food unsuited to the
digestive organs of children, &c.

Physical remedies may often be applied with advantage, when ill temper may
hare arisen from moral causes. A run in the open air, the effort of carrying:
a chair from one room to another, a draught of cold water, &c., may stop a fit
of crying or screaming when other means would fail : the writer can say from
experience that children may be readily taught to acquiesce in such means, and
^ven, with a little encouragement at the time, to exnpioy such ueanf themielvtS
for recovering their lost serenity of temper.

Marly Education, 887

'has long known, and afterwiLrds perceives, when her thoughts
^re wholly devoted to the child, that the thimble is a dangerous
toy^ because it is easily swallowed ; the next time the child isees
the thimble, it expresses its wish to have it, for it has already
known the pleasure of possession, and if its desire be signified
with gentleness^ how much more difficult is it to refuse ? *and
how much previous labour and patience on the part of the
parent, and some sufTering on the part of the child, are thrown
away, and how much more future trouble is to be endured in
consequence of this single oversight.

It would seem superfluous to insist on the necessity of
firmness^ yet it is the quality which is mostly wanting in the
government of the nursery. Few people are aware at how
early an age discipline may be enforced, and of what para-
mount importance it is. A child should be taught by expe-
rience the utter hopelessness of contending for its own way ;
as soon as it has made this discovery, it ceases to contend.
But let not this firmness ever approach to violence, or the
slightest display of impatience* The tenderness which but too
often manifests itself as a weakness may be converted into a
powerful auxiliary. All the happiness of a child springs, or
ought to spring, from its parents and its nurse. If then she to
^ .whom it looks for its comforts, its necessities^ knd its pleasures,

^ firmly but gently resist violence^ clothes her refusals in kind

^ and affectionate accents, and manifests grief more than anger

in administering correction — will not such methods be more
^ likely to produce moral results, than senseless indulgence^

^ capricious refusals, followed by permissions just as capricious,

and angry punishments administered without reflection, without
^ reason, and without temper ? And do we not find that the weak

' indulgence which knows not how to refuse> is generally accom-

,, panied by the contrary extreme of violent and injudicious

I correctiori ?

' No mother, however exemplary in the fulfilment of her

I duties, can take upon herself the entire charge of her children.

i How necessary is it then to have a nurse who is sufficiently

informed, honesty good tempered and conscientious, to com-
prehend and act upon the plan pursued and inculcated by her
i mistress. This is a difficulty which most mothers have to

contend with, and it is one which will not be overcome until a
plan of general education be adopted for all classes, which
has reference to their future station in life, and which can
only be accomplished by the union of all parties for national
instruction on an enlarged and practical basis. Females of
the lower classes must be practically taught the duties which
!they will be called upon to perform ) and the meani employed

288 Earfy Education.

must be adapted to the end, before our domestics caa be
worthy of trust. The vicious and the ignorant are daily
and iiourly placed in most responsible situations; and
though much of the happiness and misery of parents is thns
placed in the keeping of their servants, there is a very general
indifference, not to the having good servants, a thing which
all desire, but to the adoption of a general means of providing
a supply of good domestics. The influence of servants upon
children has been considered so injurious that^ in more thaif one
plan of education, it has been recommended to prevent all
communication between them. Such plans are not practicable.
It is impossible for parents, whatever be their station, to be
the sole companions of their children; and it is even less
possible in the early than in the later periods of childhood.
The middle classes are brought nearer to their children than
the rich, both by circumstances and inclination ; but they also
must necessarily entrust them more or less to servants. The
very rich, whose pursuits are often frivolous pleasure, may leave
their children altogether to servants, and yet all their riches
cannot purchase the services of honest and judicious servants:
money alone will not induce well-educated women of sense to
become nursery-maids, in the present state of society in this
country*. Until a system of universal education is adopted,
there is but one course to pursue — ^to use the same judgment in
the choice of the persons to whom you commit your children
as you employ in the management of those children themselves
—to treat your domestic^ when chosen with due care, as one on
whom you rely ; to raise her own self-respect, to endeavour to
make her comprehend your objects^ and to giv^ her a just
sense of their value ; to set her an example in your own
person of the conduct which you desire to be adopted towards
her charge. To superintend every arrangement relating to the
comfort and necessities of your children, to manifest your
deep interest in their welfare^ to encourage candour and
openness on the part of your servants, and to show by your
manner that you are grateful for their care of your children — •
such a system, where the materials on which you have to work
are not really bad, will rarely fail ; and those who adopt such a
course will be amply repaid in the possession of a trusty and
able servant.

When the child has attained the power to speak and to

* A friend bas remarked to us, that a good nursery governess can be obtained
almost on the same terms as a head nursery-maid, and that he has himself
found very great advantage in placing a sensible, well-educated young woman
in this situation. The advantage of such a superintendent for young children
we of course fully admit; but we think that at present it is not possible alwayd,
or even generally, to obtain the services of young women who are well qualified.

Early Education. 289

comprehend language, the parent's task is become both lighter
and heavier — ^lighter> because the facilities of reasoning and
explanation are afforded 3 heavier^ because the temptations of
the child are increased.

And as to the use of language^ the child must be addressed
in its own words. The mother must herself return to the
simplicity of childhood. She must not altogether put away
childish things. Her sympathy in grief and in pleasure, in
hope and in joy, in amusement and^ in learning, is quite as
necessary, and perhaps more influential than her authority,
and even this must be expressed without the inaccuracies of
infantine language, but with all its simplicity. We cannot re-
lish what we do not understand ; it would be hard if we were
expected to act upon advice or instruction given in an incom-
prehensible tongue ; many an unfortunate child is addressed
in terms which are to it wholly unintelligible. It seldom hap-
pens that the reason of children cannot be addressed ; the
difficulty lies not in them, but in ourselves ; not in the thing,
but in the mode of expressing it. We forget the . many links
in the long chain which connects our early perceptions with
our subsequent acquirements ; but in order effectually to em-
ploy our experience in the education of others, we must retrace
our steps^ and become young again in word, not in deed, — in
feeling, not in action.

Another important duty is to provide such means of amuse-
ment, that no temptation to what is called mischief may ensue.
All healthy children will be occupied^ and if occupation is not
found for them, they will find it for themselves. The love of
construction and destruction abounds in most children. Their
toys then should be of a kind to facilitate the one and prevent
the other. Such things as a box of bricks, or of houses, even a
slate and pencil^ are inexhaustible sources of amusement to those
who have no garden : or for the winter season, books of prints,
of birds, or a,nimals in general, may be employed with great ad-
vantage, because they excite questions, afford the parent oppor-
tunities of giving much valuable oral instruction^ and induce
that love of inquiry which is the parent of knowledge. Those
who possess a garden have fewer difficulties to encounter in
providing amusement for their children. The spade, the wheel-
barrow^ or waggon, the hoop, kite^ and ball, are too excellent
and too well-known to need recommendation here; neither
need we name the doll for girls, which affords constant and
varied amusement and occupation, and may be made the means
of inculcating much that will be subsequently useful and ad-
mirable in a female.

These toys may also be made useful in teaching order,

Jan.— April, 1834. U

290 Early Education.

carefulness, and steadfastness. The seeds of perseverance
may be sown, by insisting on a child's remaining satisfied with
one plaything for a reasonable space of time ; and a power of
abstraction may be conferred by accustoming it to fix its atten-
tion on the object before it, even when surrounded by other
attractions. Such a habit would also prevent envy or discontent.
A child who is early accustomed to be satisfied with its own
allotment will scarcely be discontented at a later period. A love
of order may be encouraged by the habit of putting the
various toys in their respective places after use, and such a
habit eventually leads to systematic carefulness and economy.

We now come to a most important part of education. The
teaching of the practice of virtue-— the instilling a permanent
love of goodness, a hatred of evil.

Children who look upon their parents as the sources of their
happiness (and all parents have the power of inculcating this
feeling) will reverence their words and actions, and seek to
follow their example ; (we presuppose the early training we
have recommended to have been pursued for three or four
years ;) they will also be delighted to please their parents^ and
grieved to vex them. Here then affection becomes one great
stimulus, and a powerful instrument.

The practice of self-control^ of truth, obedience, and gentle-
ness, should be rewarded not by gifts, but by affectionate praise
and encouragement ; and all contrary conduct should be re-
proved by disapprobation, and the expression of sorrow. Re-
wards and punishments must occasionally be resorted to at all
ages, but they should be used sparingly, and, as we have before
remarked, be made to grow out of the circumstances which call
them forth. The pleasure afforded by self-approbation> and
the approval of those whom we love and esteem, ought to be
the greatest pleasure that a child can receive. When this is
attained, the main difficulty is overcome.

We must, however, insist on the power of habit. The rea-
soning faculties are stronger in some children than in others,
but the force of habit is great in all. Before reason assumes
much influence, (and it exists earlier than is generally believed,)
habits may be acquired ; subsequently, appeals may be made
to reason and affection.

If a child has been accustomed to find discomfort an un-
cailing consequence of misconduct, it will avoid misconduct as
anxiously as it would avoid the fire after having been once
burned. When it begins to reason, it will perceive the effect
of misconduct in others, and here the parent has the means of
strengthening a dislike of evil by illustrative tales, either read
or repeated, showing the advantages of virtue, and the disadvan-

Early Education* 291

tages of vice. A jadicious selection will have the double effect
of leading the child to a love of information. But again, we
must urge upon the instructor^ that nothing which is beyond its
comprehension or is incapable of explanation should be pre-
sented. Everything vague ought to be avoided. We should
teach a child (whether it be by precept or by fictitious
example) to do^ or not to do, particular things, such as not
to practise falsehood or deceit, but to be sincere and open on
all occasions: geneml admonitions as to virtue and vice,
doing right and doing wrong, &c., have little efiect.

In the employment of the influence of affection, great pru-
dence must be exercised, lest the feeling be deadened by too
much use ; or, on the other hand, lest the child be habituated
to submit the judging power^ which in after life is the main
motive of action^ to the less certain guidance of sympathy and
affection uncontrolled by reason : both evils, though of an op-
posite character> may we think arise from the injudicious use
of the principle of affection. We might also caution mothers
against the constant reiteration of such phrases as the follow-
ing : — Don't do this ; be quiet ; let that alone ; you are very
naughty. The child soon comes to regard them as mere idle
words, and often ceases even to hear them.

As implicit obedience is one of the first objects to be ob-
tained, so no command should be given the fulfilment of which
cannot be, and is not^ insisted upon. The moment that evasion
is found possible, it will be practised. There is no need of
violence^ no necessity for force^ either in language or action,
nothing but quiet, firm determination until the command be
obeyed ; approbation or displeasure may follow in proportion
to the resistance that has been offered. We repeat, that every
child must be taught the utter hopelessness of having its own
ivay^ before strict discipline can be maintained. Still we
should be careful not to let our commands be of that descrip-
tion which may encourage obstinacy and resistance. For
example, if a child has not obeyed a certain command^ it may
often be better to inflict a positive punishment^ such as con-
finement, or the deprivation of some little pleasure, than to
make the punishment continue till the child has obeyed the
command. If we make the child's punishment continue till
he has done what he is ordered to do, there is danger> with
some children, of a stubborn resistance. If we punish for
disobedience to the command, the lesson will not be without its
value ; and if the punishment be repeated as oflen as the offence
is committed, there is not much reason for doubting that the
parent will finally be successful.

As there are various tempers to be contended with, so must

292 Early Education. .

the system vary with regard to each. PassioO) obstinacy, fret-
fulnessy suUenness, and timidity, are the chief varieties. With
the first we should recommend summary punishment, and that
of a somewhat harsh character : for instance, solitary confine-
ment, or bodily restraint, such as limitation to so small a space
that movement is difficult or uneasy ; and the entire privation
of the object which has caused the excitation for hours or
days, according to the age of a child.

Obstinacy is often fostered, rather than checked, by opposi-
tion. Wherever it is possible, the parent must endeavour not
to perceive the assumed ignorance or incapacity, which are
the usual forms which obstinacy takes in children. If they
refuse to repeat a thing, say it over and over again yourself
calmly, as if you were only anxious to remove their ignorance.
If they refuse to do a thing, if it be practicable to move their
limbs gently into the necessary action, do so, and let the matter
end, never alluding to it at any subsequent period. If both
these methods be unavailing, or not practicable, tie the hand
behind the back, or attach it by a string to a hook in the wall,
so as not to inflict pain, but merely so as to occasion inconveni-
ence until the obstinate fit is over. But the child must never
know that it is stubborn ; nor must it ever perceive that it has
the power to disturb the serenity of its guardian.

Fretfulness generally proceeds from physical causes, and
eventually becomes habitual. The evil is more easy to pre-
vent than to remedy ; a little extra attention to the amuse-
ments of the child so afflicted (for a great affliction it is) will do
much. An increase of tenderness, (we do not by this mean false
indulgence,) accompanied by a firm determination not to grant
the object which is longed for, are perhaps the best checks.

Sullenness can only be repressed by the privation of all
society, all sympathy, and all amusement. The delinquent
must be practically taught, that, when under the influence of
such feelings, he is unfit for communication with his fellows,
and unworthy of their regard. Timidity is perhaps more a
defect of character than of temper ; and, what seems an ano-
maly, is generally accompanied by vanity. Shy men are
usually conceited. It proceeds from a false view of one's self
and of others ; of both persons and things. Encouragement
must here be blended with particular attention to the reasoning
faculties. ,

The influence of body over mind is too apparent to need
comment, and yet how seldom is this fact considered and acted
upon. Locke has wisely insisted upon the necessity of the
formation of healthy habits, in order to ensure the success of
education. Regularity is most esi^ential, as far as regards the

Early Education. 293

hours allotted to sleep and noarishment. The M^ant of suffi-
cient sleep during the day, especially in very young children,
induces, besides many bodily defects, a restlessness and fret-
fulness which are unquestionably moral evils. Hunger or
satiety will produce the same results. Undue exposure to cold
destroys the energies of a child, and exposure to heat weakens
them : a proper temperature is of great importance. We insist
upon these points here> because it is undeniable that they
involve both the moral and intellectual education of the child.
Exercises which call forth the free action of the limbs^ also in-
duce free action of the mental faculties. The animated laugh,
the merry phrase^ the childish imitation, are best heard and
seen in the midst of active and healthful sport. Some persons
restrict children in these matters^ because they fear they may
induce boisterous and vulgar habits of speech and manner.
But this again depends upon the parent's superintendence.
Mirth does not mean noise : exercise does not infer coarse
actions. Nature shows incessant motion to be the means by
which infants attain all their bodily and even their perceptive
powers, and while youth lasts it cannot be unduly restrained
without injury. Fresh air and exercise, judicious diet, and
regular hours, are the best prescription which a mother can
act upon to secure the bodily and mental health of her off-
spring.

When once a love of virtuous conduct has been instilled,
and made habitual, the intellectual education may begin ; but
it is not to be commenced with books, nor by the alphabet.
Before knowledge can be beneficially acquired, its value must
be felt, and a desire of attainment must be inspired and
manifested. This is not a difficult task, but it can only be ful-
filled by those who have studied the capabilities, and the
powers of the intellect which is to be cultivated.

The forms of expression employed by children are those
which they best comprehend, and in these, as we have before
observed, they must be addressed. Great truths may be il-
lustrated by small words. A fact is not the less valuable or
interesting because it is clothed in simple language ; on the
contrary, it can only be really valued when it is understood.
Before children have attained their fourth year, some peculiar
mental organization is developed, requiring direction, restraint,
or encouragement. Upon a false or correct estimate of this
organization will depend the moral and intellectual welfare of
the individual. In some characters, imagination is predominant,
in others, quick perception ; and in a few, for this perhaps is the
rarest, the reasoning powers are most active.

Great imagination frequently exists with no power of lan-
guage, and children are distinguished by this mingled excellence

294 Early Education.

and defect, equally with adults. Because they cannot express
their thoughts intelligibly^ they are judged to have no ideas
at all, or condemned as stupid. A patient investigation will
discover the injustice of the sentencej and in such cases the
child*s deficiencies should be remedied, care taken to increase
his stock of words> and to habituate him to a clear and correct
expression of his ideas. The same excess of imagination gives
rise to that dreaming state which assumes the appearance of
lazinesSj (and the effects are equally injurious ;) the imagina-
tion is indeed busy^ but it is active to no end ; the other facul-
ties are lying dormant, and their want of exercise will finally
become incapacity. These imaginative minds often affix their
own definitions to words^ inducing such erroneous conceptions,
and such distortions of facts, that a child has not un frequently
been deemed idiotic ; whereas^ upon a minute examination of
the various trains of thought, the misconceptions have evidently
arisen from a vivid imagination acting upon misinterpreted ex-
pressions occasioned by the similarity of sounds^ or by some
association. For instance, a conversation has passed in the
presence of a child, in which anecdotes or events are related,
parts of which only are intelligible to him ; to these parts he
affixes his own meaning ; this affords ample food for an active
imagination^ and when at some future time a term or name
previously heard is used, the child associates with it the former
facts^ the original train of ideas return, and he appears to be
talking of something totally irrelevant, when, in fact, the con-
nexion is intimate, and the deduction fair, according to the
premises he had made for himself. Such minds delight in
improbabilities and tales of wonder : the marvellous to them
is more attractive than truth, and if they be not checked, the
judgment is sacrificed, and the reasoning powers almost de-
stroyed. ^ Nothing tends to the fostering of this quaUty of the
mind more than ordinary prints. An excess of imagination i&
either the cause or effect (most probably the former) of mental
indolence ; and where it prevails, the child will prefer gazing on
a print to informing itself of the reality of the subject which
the print illustrates. In an inquiring mind^ an engraving will
create a desire to know more, and when the facts are acquired,
the defects or improbabilities of the illustration will be detected.
An imaginative mind takes all upon trust, it does not wish to
inquire^ it believes. Good engravings, by which term we mean
correct representations, judiciously employed, are of great
assistance in education; but children's books often contain
illustrations which absolutely contradict the impression that the
words convey, and create incorrect ideas and associations which
it is impossible wholly to eradicate.
In contradistinction to this superabundance of imaginatioDj

JSarly Education. 295

there are minds which cannot be urged beyond mere matter of
fact. With them words are limited not so much to one mean-
ing, as to one application, yet they are not deficient in curiosity,
and probably delight in inquiry, but the fact once acquired
lies sterile ; it produces no results further than that it is so;
the modifications of circumstances are neither foreseen nor
understood. These two distinct manifestations are often greatly
misinterpreted ; the one is considered a fool, the other very
clever — neither opinion being correct.

In order to analyze the nature of youthful intellect, the
child must be observed during its sports, and when uninflu-
enced by restraint. The preceptor must condescend to become
its playfellow : it by no means follows that, in so doing, he
loses his influence, for companions generally have greater
power than instructors ; hence the importance of discretion in
the choice of companions ; and the conclusion is obvious that
children should remain in that sacred asylum ' home,* until
they can distinguish between good and evil, and have moral
and intellectual strength to cling to the one and resist the
other. The vulgar, ignorant, obstinate, passionate, or vicious
playfellow of an hour will implant more evil than days, nay
years of care can root out. But when a child has learned that
such things are wrong, he will fear and dislike the evil-doer, and
avoid him as he would fly from any vicibus animal.

The child having learned to distinguish between good and
evil, and acquired habits of obedience, self-control, a love of
truth, an affectionate confidence in its preceptor, with some
idea of the utility of knowledge, and of its power to confer
amusement, (and in childhood amusement is happiness^) the
imaginary diffculty of learning to read will be half overcome,
before the task appears to have commenced. And let it be
observed that, as learning ought to be made pleasurable, so
let it never be held forth as the awful afiair it has been so long
considered. It is only the ignorance or pedantry of the teacher
which invests it with an austerity, both false and hateful.

From the above remarks the following conclusions may be
fairly drawn.

First ; that the formation of good habits is practicable at a
very early age.

Second; that a system of regular control may be esta-
blished and acted upon, before the reasoning faculties and
powers of speech are much developed.

Third ; that with the developement of reason and language,
increased means are afforded.

Fourth; that success in life and character depend more
upon the parent than upon the child.

296 Early Education. '

Fifth; that the tools (so to speak) which must be employed,
are firmness, gentleness, consistency, patience, and maternal
tenderness.

Sixth ; that the materials to be acted upon are healthy
temperament, affection, and reason.

From these deductions, it is clear that the mother is to a
great extent responsible for the moral well being of her child ;
tfiat she has a duty to fulfil, demanding the practice of all the
virtues which she wishes to inculcate, and requiring an informed
and unprejudiced mind^ with a clear and unwarped judgment.
The personal attention required of her will not, if her time be
well regulated^ interfere with other duties.

We have advanced nothing that is not practical^ nothing
that is not in the power of every mother. We cannot even
allow that there is much difficulty in what we propose ; the
greatest lies in the self-knowledge and self-command required
of the parent. We have heard many mothers assert that they
send their, young children to a preparatory school because they
have not time to attend to them at home. Have they found
time to inquire into the system of that school, and the character
of the companions whom their children will meet there ?
Do they find time to examine either the moral or intellectual
attainments of their children ? to ascertain whether they
have acquired virtuous habits ? or are they merely satisfied
with knowing that Miss or Master is learning spelling, reading,
geography^ grammar, writing, and arithmetic. If mothers
cannot find time personally to superintend the elementary
education of their children, neither will they find time to
ascertain how that education proceeds.

But they may eventually find time to lament over the
influence of bad example, the ignorance of virtue, and the
acquaintance with evil in which their children have grown up ;
they will have to mourn the loss of affection, confidence, friend-
ship, and parental influence; and in addition to this they may
some time discover that their children have grown up entirely
deficient in all useful or solid acquirements.

MEDICAL EDUCATION IN DUBLIN.

It is a remarkable fact in the history of medicine in the
British islands, that regular schools of medicine, with complete
systems of medical education, were very late in being esta«
blished. Till a very recent period any provision for medical
education^ which may be said to have existed, was to be found
almost exclusively at the universities ; and as the Colleges of
Physicians^ which were the only societies of medical men as yet

.Medical Education in Dublin. 297

incorporated, were all in close connexion with the universities,
they evinced no solicitude for^ nor did they appear to see the
necessity of, making a provision by which they might ensure
to the public a succession of well-informed practitioners.
Hence no attempt was made to form a complete system of
meidical education in any of the three countries, till the other
grades of the medical profession began to form themselves into
independent corporations and frame laws for the separate
control and government of all who practised in their respective
departments of medicine.

In Dublin there existed from an early period, in connexion
with the university, professorships of physic, of anatomy, of
chemistry, and of botany, and to the occupants of these chairs
was entrusted the superintendence of all matters connected
with the medical faculty, and in particular the education and
examination of candidates for the degrees in medicine. The
professorship of physic owes its title to the statute appointing
one of the fellows to be devoted to the study of medicine ; but
although there is reason to apprehend that the medical as
well as the law fellows (Medicus et Jurista) should be
regarded as the university professors in their faculties, still it
appears that, since the restoration, the professorship and
fellowship have been considered as distinct, and, with two
exceptions, were never held by the same person *. The first

trofessor of physic was appointed in the year 1662, but until
71 we find no mention of other professors in the faculty of
medicine : in that year, ground was laid out for a laboratory and
anatomical theatre, and lectures in anatomy, botany, and
chemistry were commenced f.

The College of Physicians in Ireland was formed in the
year 1660, but was not chartered till 1679. It was found
that by this its first charter, the college had not sufficient
power to punish and reform such abuses and grievances as
frequently existed, which was the more palpable inasmuch
as that power did not extend beyond seven miles from Dublin ;
a new charter was therefore obtained in the fourth year of the
reign of William and Mary, whence the college received its
present designation— TAc King and Queen's College oj
Physicians in Ireland. In consequence of a munificent
bequest of Sir Patrick Dun, the first president of the college
under its new charter, a professorship of physic was esta-
blished in connexion with that body in 1715. Some years
afterwards, the college, finding that a considerable increase
would take place in the value of the endowment left by
their late president, determined to enlarge the plan proposed
* Dublin University Calendar for 1834, p. 40. f Ibid. p. 52.

296 Medical Educaiim m Dublin.

by him, and to establish professorships supplementary to the
medical courses then taught in the university ; and in 1743 a
private act of paiiiament was obtained vacating the office of
professor of physic^ and directing the annual income to be
divided equally among three professors^ to be styled the
King's Professors of Physic* of Surgery and Midwifery^ and
of Pharmacy and Materia Medica'*'. In 1783, the estates
of Sir Patrick Duu being found to be still more productive,
the college conceived that additional professorships should be
established, and that provision should be made for clinical
instruction. Accordingly an act of parliament, styled An
Act far establishing a complete School of Physic in Ireland,
was obtained two years afterwards, by which the three university
lecturers received the denomination of professors, and the
following professorships were established in connexion with the
College of Physicians ; viz. institutes of medicine, practice of
medicine, and materia medica and pharmacy. By a subse-
quent act, a proportion of the funds arising from the estates of
oir Patrick was devoted to the support of an hospital for clini-
cal instruction, which is now designated Sir Patrick Dun's hos-
pital. Such was the origin of the School of Physic in Ireland,
Up to the commencement of the last quarter of the eigh-
teenth century the surgical profession was, in Ireland, as in
Great Britain, in a very degraded state ; in union with the
barbers, the surgeons constituted the corporation denominated
barber-surgeons. A few of the more educated among the
surgeons, seeing the disadvantages resulting from this union,
resolved to exert themselves to effect its dissolution, and
accordingly formed themselves into a distinct society with that
object. Their first exertions were not, however, successful ;
they petitioned the Irish Parliament to dissolve the corporate
union subsisting between surgeons and barbers, which they
justly represented as highly disgraceful to the former, and
injurious to the best interests of science. The influence of
a city corporation, and the reluctance on the part of the
legislature to interfere with the chartered rites of ancient
establishments were the means of affording a triumph to the
barbers, who in consequence of the rejection of the sui^ons'
petition still retained their connexion with them. A second
effort on the part of the surgeons was however completely
crowned with success ; the petitioners, in their appeal to the
government on this occasion, took no notice of their old
colleagues, but merely prayed to be incorporated into a Royal
College of Surgeons. This requisition was too reasonable and
just to be rejected ; the opposition which it met with arose

* Annals ol Sir Patrick Pun^s Hoftpitalby Dr. Ot\Munt,^J)ubiat^ 1831.

Medical Education in Dublin. 299

evidently from interested and sordid motives. The wishes and
the views of the society of surgeons were speedily complied with
and adopted ; and thus, in the year 1784, the Royal College
of Surgeons in Ireland was incorporated by Royal Charter.

The first acts of the newly«chartered College of Surgeons
were directed to the establishment of such a system of educa-
tion as would ensure a competent body of practitioners for the
public good. The system then adopted was maintained till a
recent period, and, although on the whole^ it was by no means
free from objections, still it was found to work' well, until the
connexions and power of the college had increased ; and indeed
it was framed partly with a view to increase the stability and
influence of the infant institution. It was a fundamental part
of this system that the student should serve an apprenticeship
of five years to a regularly educated surgeon, which phrase,
in due time, was found to be applicable only to a member or
licentiate of the Irish College ; and hence originated a mono-
poly which held out a strong inducement to surgeons prac-
tising in Dublin to enrol themselves on the lists of the new
College. Under the guidance, and with the instruction of his
master, the pupil was to be prepared to undergo an exami-
nation for the college diploma at the expiration of his
apprenticeship. At this early period the college had not pre-
scribed a plan of study to be followed by candidates for their
diploma ; however^ it seems to have been a primary object
with them to provide the means of instruction for stirgical stu-
dents of Dublin. With the aid of pecuniary grants from go-
vernment, they built a theatre and other accommodations for
instruction in anatomy; surgery, midwifery, surgical pharmacy,
and botany^ and thus formed the commencement of the Schodl
of Surgery in Ireland,

Very soon after their establishment^ the college began to
adopt a very strict system in the examination of candidates for
their diploma, — strict, especially when compared with the ex-
aminations of contemporary institutions. The examination was
held, as at present, before the members and licentiates of the
college^ and occupied at the least an hour for two several days.
The eflfect of this strictness might doubtless have been in-
jurious to the new establishment in deterring persons from
presenting themselves for the diploma, when they might obtain
one with much greater facility elsewhere, were it not that, by
an act of the Irish parliament, the surgeoncies to the Irish
county infirmaries were reserved exclusively for persons hold-
ing the diploma of the Irish College'*'. There can be no doubt
that this exclusive privilege^ by which so many situations valu-

* This privilege still exists, although its contiuaance 'was violently oppose^
by the Loudou College*

300 Medical Education in Dublin.

able in themselves, conrerring the highest station among the
surgeons of the county, and necessarily giving the best intro-
duction to practice, were to a certain extent made over to
the college, contributed mainly to increase the number as well
as the respectability of those who sought to be enrolled among
its licentiates and members. . However we may object to
the adoption of any exclusive principle or monopoly, it must
be admitted that the measure of the legislature which conferred
this boon on the college was one attended with the greatest
advantages not only to that body, but to the public ; and,
as one of the many instances where good is found to result
from evil^ we cannot help thinking that, to the increase
in the number of applicants for the diploma produced in
consequence of this exclusive privilege, may be attributed
the more liberal measures afterwards adopted by the college
regarding the admission of candidates. Hitherto it was
virtually the case that none were admissible as licentiates
but those who had served an apprenticeship of five years
to a member or licentiate of the college. Whatever might
be the acquirements, the opportunities, or the rank of the
applicant, the Court of Examiners was not empowered to
admit him to an examination^ unless he had gone through the
service prescribed by the chatter. Cases not unfrequently
occurred of applications from men of excellent education, and
highly respectable connexions, who had enjoyed the best oppor-
tunities for professional study, which the court was compelled
to refuse. The tendency of such a system was naturally to
excite a considerable hostility to the college on the part of a
large body of men, who did not happen to possess certain ad-
vantages in their younger days. Hence the college was led
to adopt measures for altering the conditions of admission into
their body, and in 1826 they obtained a new charter with such
alterations as enabled the Court of Examiners to exercise a less
restrained judgment on the admission of candidates. Under the
old regulations any one who had served the prescribed appjen-
ticeship could claim an examination, even though he could
produce no further evidence of surgical education, nor had the
court a legal power to refuse. The new charter, however,
effected an important change; it empowered the court, not
only to admit to examination such as had not been appren-
tices, but to prescribe a certain course and plan of education
to be followed by all who were desirous of enrolling them-
selves in the college lists. At this time too the college deemed
it expedient to enlarge the provision which they had made for
the instruction of their registered pupils, and accordingly they
placed their school on its present complete footing.

Medical Education in Dublin. 301 '

Having thus offered a brief historical sketch of the rise and
progress of the three institutions which preside over medical
education in Dublin^ viz. the Medical Faculty of the Univer-
sity, the King and Queen's College of Physicians, and the
Royal College of Surgeons^ we next proceed to lay before
our readers an account of the existing constitution and ar-
rangements of these bodies.

The affairs of the Medical Faculty in the University are
managed by the Regius Professor of Physic, who does not give
public lectures, and the Professors of Anatomy and Surgery, of
Chemistry, and of Botany. The degrees in medicine (M.B. and
M.D.) cannot be conferred without the consent of these profes-
sors, and the approved candidate is presented by the Regius
Professor. No person can obtain the degree of bachelor in
medicine in Dublin University, unless he have previously
graduated in arts. He must be A.B. of three years standing,
counted from the day of admission to that degree, unless he
shall have commenced the study of medicine immediately after
his matriculation in the university, in which case he may obtain
the degree after twenty-four terms, that is, in six years from his
matriculation, or two years from the period of his graduation
as A.B. If he be already a master of arts, he may obtain the
degree of M.B. after two years. The candidate must produce
certificates of having attended a course of lectures of six
months duration on each of the following subjects : — anatomy
and surgery, chemistry, pracice of physic, institutes of medi-
cine, materia medica, and midwifery. He must also have a
certificate of a course of botany of three months, and of having
attended two courses of clinical lectures each of three months
duration. Credit is not allowed to students for attendance on
more than three courses in one and the same year. Three of
these courses, but not more, may be attended in the University
of Edinburgh, the rest must be in the School of Physic in
Ireland, i. e. the school formed by the Professors of Trinity Col-
lege, and those on the foundation of Sir Patrick Dun. These
testimonials being laid before the provost and senior fellows, a
liceat ad examinandum is granted to the candidate to present
himself for examination before the four university professors*.
The examination is privately conducted in English, viva voce,
on anatomy^ practice of physic, chemistry, materia medica,
and botany ; if approved, the candidate is admitted to per-
form the exercises, which are one opponency, aiid one thesis
on some. medical subject. To become doctor in medicine, the
candidate must be M.B. of five years, or M!A. of seven years'
standing. The exercises are one opponency and one thesis

* Extracted from the Dublin University Calendar, 1834.

302 Medical Education in DuUin.

in Latin, which must be printed by the candidate } there is no
further examination for this degree.

The medical school of the university is formed by the
professors of anatomy* chemistry, and botany^ who deliver
complete courses of lectures ; those on anatomy, and surgery,
and chemistry, commence in November, and terminate at the
end of April; and those on botany are delivered during the
months of May* June, and July. The anatomical collection
belonging to Trinity College is one of the oldest in the
Upited Kingdom* It is understood that many of the pre-
parations are seventy years old; some of them evince a know-
ledge of the art of displaying minute structure not excelled in
modem times. The principal museum connected with the
anatomical school is, however, the property of the present
Professor of Anatomy, and is well and judiciously stored
with preparations illustrative of human and comparative ana-
tomy, healthy and morbid *•

College of Physicians, — Under their present charter, the
College of Physicians in Ireland consists of fellows, honorary
fellows^ and licentiates. All graduates in medicine who have
conformed to the course of study required by the college, are
aidnoissible to an examination for the licence. All licentiates
who possess a degree in arts from a university are admissible
to the fellowship after a probationary period of three years ;
nor can any one become a fellow until he have passed through
the grade of licentiate. In general, the election to a fellowship
is by ballot, and without examination ; but the college have
power to Qxamine any candidates, if they should think fit.

The felloi^s are the governing body in the college : they elect
annually by ballot a president and four censors, to whom is
committed the examination of candidates for the college li-
cence ; and, conjointly with the provost and senior fellows of
Trinity College, the control and superintendence of the School
of Physic. ' .

Candidates for the licence of the college are of two classes :
1. Those who have already obtained degrees in medicine
from a British university; and 2. Those who are not graduates.
From the former, the college requires that, in addition to the
medical education required by the university at which they
may have graduated^ they should furnish proof of having
attended one course of lectures on surgery, one on midwifery,
one course of dissections, by which is understood the complete
dissection of at least one body, and the practice of a medico-
chirurgical hospital, during one year.

From those who have not previously graduated in medicine,
it is required that they should produce evidence of

* Dublin University Calendar, 1834.

Medical Education in Dublin. 803

^ Attendance on courses of lectures on anatomy, chemistry, botany,
materia medica, institutes of medicine, and practice of medicine ; one
course, at least, to have been attended in each of four years ; also on
three courses of lectures on clinical medicine, not more than two of
which shall be attended in any one year ; also on surgery, mid-
wifery, and on the practice of a hospital during two years, one of
which must be spent at the hospital attached to the School of
Physic in Dublin, or the Clinical Hospital at Edinburgh, and one
at a Medieo-Chirurgical Hospital recognized by the college/

This class of candidates is likewise required to have practised
dissections as the former.

* The lectures on anatomy, chemistry, botany, materia mediea,
institutes of medicine, and practice of medicine, recognized by the
college, are required to have been delivered by the respective pro-
fessors in the School of Physic, in Dublin or Edinburgh. The
lectures on surgery are required to have been delivered on at least
three days in the week, during four months, by a professor of sur-
gery, in a university or college of physicians or surgeons in the
United Kingdom, or by the surgeon of a medico-chirurgical hospi-
tal, recognized by the college. These lectures must not form a
part of the course of lectures on anatomy. The lectures in mid-
wifery are required to have been delivered on at least three days in
the week, during three months, by a professor of midwifery, in a
university or college of physicians or surgeons, in the United King-
dom, or by the Master of the Lying-in Hospital, Dublin. The
courses of clinical lectures must have been attended at the hospital
of the School of Physic, in Dublin or Edinburgh, or two courses at
the said hospitals, and one course at a medico-chirurgical hospital
recognized by the college.'

Such is the course of education laid down by the King and
Queen's College of Physicians, for those who aspire to its
diploma. We have omitted one regulation, the object of which
we cannot well understand^ nor do we conceive that it is much
to the credit of the college to enforce such a requisition : we
quote the words of the bye-law :

* Every candidate for licence shall, previous to an examination,
sign the following declaration : I, A. B., do hereby authorize the
King and Queen's College of Physicians, in Ireland, to erase my
name from the list of licentiates, and consent to have all my privileges
as a licentiate withdrawn, if I shall, afler having obtained a
licence from the said college, and whilst I reside in the city ot
Dublin, or within seven miles thereof, either become, or continue to
be, a member or licentiate of any college of surgeons, or company ot
apothecaries ; or if I shall at any time hold or have any interest in
an apothecary's shop, in any part of Ireland.'

Every candidate for a licence to practise physic is examined,
on the first day, in anatomy and physiology, chemistry, botany,
and materia mediea ; and on the second day in pharmacy^ acute

304 Medical Education in Dublin.

and chronic diseasesi the non-naturals^^ and the translating
parts of one or more of the following books from the
original Greek, viz., Hippocrates^ Aretseus, and Galen. Every
candidate^ except he be a graduate in arts of Oxford,
Cambridge, or Dublin^ is required to translate medical cases
from English into Latin, before he can be admitted for exami«
nation as to his medical acquirements. These examinations take
place in presence of the fellows and licentiates of the college,
and are conducted in English, and viva voce. Licentiates of the
college desirous of being acknowledged by the college as mid-
wifery practitioners, and of being marked as such in the college
lists, must produce the following qualifications: L A certi-
ficate of attendance for six months on the Lying-in Hospital
in Dublin, or any other lying-in hospital of which the college
shall approve. 2. Certificates of attendance on two courses of
lectures on midwifery, each of three months duration, or on
one course of sixrmonths.

The jurisdiction of the college extends over all Ireland. No
one can practise physic in Dublin, or within seven miles of it,
who has not been first ^ admitted or licensed to do the same by
the president and fellows of the said college, under pain of ten
pounds for every month in which he shall exercise the said
faculty without licence ; and it is equally unlawful^ for any
person not a graduate of Cambridge, Oxford, or Dublin, to
practise physic in any part of Ireland, without the licence of
the college, under pain of forfeiting five pounds for every
month in which he continues so to practise f.'

The professors^ on the foundation of Sir Patrick Dun^ named
King's Professors of materia medica^ of the practice of medi-
cine^ and of the institutes of medicine, with a professor of mid-
wifery lately appointed by the college, are under the control of
the College of Physicians, and, with the University professors,
form the School of Physic. Each gives a course of lectures of
six months duration, commencing on the first of November,
and two are chosen annually to give clinical lectures, and to
attend the clinical wards of Sir Patrick Dun's Hospital J.

College of Surgeons. — ^This body consists of members and

* Under the term, non-naturcUSf aiitient physicians comprehended air, meat,
and drink, sleep and watching, motion and rest, the retentions and excretions,
and the affections of the mind ; or in other words, those principal matters which
do not enter into the composition of the hody, but at the same time are necessary
to its existence. — Hooper,

f The College, however, have long ceased to exercise their power in this
respect.

f The fee for attendance on a single coarse of each of the professors of the
school of physic is four guineas ; that for a year on the clinical wards of Sir
Patrick Dun's Hospital, three guineas to those who have matriculated in the
university, and twelve guineas to all others. The fee for two courses of clinical
lectures, each of three months duration, is six guineas.

Medical Educatioh in Dnblin, 305

licentiates. The latter are those ^ho only possess the diploma
of the college ; the former are elected from among the licentates,
by ballot^ after a probationary period of four years. In the
members is vested the whole management of the affairs of the
college ; they annually elect a president and vice-president,
six censors as a court of examiners, and twelve assistants,
whose duty will be mentioned hereafter. So long as the
college consisted of few members, this method of managing its
affairs was found sufficiently advantageous; but latterly, when
the number of members has undergone a very considerable in-
crease, some incouvenience, if not positive disadvantage, has
appeared to result from the arrangement, and we understand
that some alteration is contemplated in this respect. We know
that, some years ago, a distinguished member of the college did
propose that the management of its affairs should be placed in
the hands of a council, but although this proposition was sup-
ported by most of the senior members of the college, it was re-
jected. To the Court of Examiners, consisting of the six
censors, and the president, or, in his absence, the vice-president,
belong properly all matters relating to surgical education, and
the admission of candidates to the diploma of the college. By
the latest regulation of the court, any person desirous of ob-
taining the diploma of the college must have been registered
as a pupil on the college books> some time prior to his applica*
tion for examination. If he be an apprentice to a member or
licentiate of the college, and have paid him the usual fee of one
hundred and fifty guineas, he^will be required to pay a registry
fee of ten guineas to the college, and his master an additional
fee of the same sum ; but if he has not paid an apprentice
fee, he must pay a registry fee of fifty guineas to the
college ; an exception to the last rule, however, is made in
favour of a candidate who maybe the son, brother, or nephew,
of the member or licentiate, to whom he is apprenticed, or the
son of any member or licentiate of the college, — such a
student, as well as those who are not apprenticed, may be regis-
tered on payment of ten guineas fee to the college.

By the registry of their students, the Court of Censors is-
enabled to exercise a complete surveillance over their medical
education, which is or ought to be the primary object of a
college. With a view to exercising this superintendence to the
fullest extent, the college has lately instituted half-yearly
examinations of the students, in addition to the final exami-
nation for the diploma, as will appear from the subjoining
extract from the ^^By-I^aws relating to the Examination of
Candidates for letters-testimonial."

Jan. — April, 1834. X

306 Medical Sdueaticn in Dublin.

Half yearly EsaminaHonM.

* 1. The president, with the vice-president, and the members of the
courts of censors and assistants, or a majority of them, shall ap-
point, by a majority of voices from amongf themselves, four or more
members, with the president and vice-president, to examine the
registered pupils as to their proficiency in their studies, every half
year, in the months of May and November, of which examinations
due notice shall be given, by summons, and by advertisement in the
newspapers.

* i. The pupils shall be divided into four classes, and each class
shall be examined in the presence of the members and licentiates of
the college, for such length of time, not being less than one hour, as
the examiners may think proper, and the name of every pupil who
shall answer such examination to the satisfaction of the said examiner
shall be enrolled by the secretary in a book provided for that pur-
pose.

' 8. The first class shall be examined as to their knowledge of
the principles of physiology, the descriptive anatomy of the bones,
ligaments, muscles, and joints, the first principles of surgery, and
elements of chemistry.

' 4. The second class shall be examined as to their knowledge of the
anatomy and physiology of the vascular and respiratory systems, in-
cluding the descriptive anatomy of the heart and lungs, and the
relative and surgical anatomy of the arteries and veins, of the
nature and surgical treatment of wounds in general, hemorrhage,
fractures, and dislocations, and of the practice of pharmacy, and
the materia medica.

' 5. The third class shall be examined respecting their know-
ledge of the general composition of animal structure, the anatomy
and physiology of the organs provided for digestion, chylification,
and secretion in general, including the structure of the skin and
mucous membranes, and the descriptive anatomy of the abdominal
viscera and absorbents, of tumours and diseases oT the bones and
joints, of pathology, and the principles and practice of medicine in
general, and the nature and treatment of febrile and inflammatory
disease, in particular.

6. The fourth or senior class shall be examined respecting their
knowledge of the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the brain
and nervous system, and of the organs of sense, and the urinary and
genital organs; of injuries of the head, and of operative surgery, and
medical jurisprudence.'

To obtain the diploma of the college, after the year 1839*, it
will be necessary that the candidate snail have passed an exami-
nation in each of the above-named classes, and afterwards he
must pass a final examination^ the subject matter of which is

* At preflent candidates are only reqnired to paM one final examination ; Uie
new by-laws would not come fully into force until after the expiration of the
term of study of all those students who had commenced prior to their enact*
ment.

Medical Education in Dublin. 30/

anatomy^ and physiology, the theory and practice of medicine
and surgery^ chemistry^ and the materia medica* The candidate
is liable to be called on to perform a surgical operation on the
dead subject, or to make a dissection in the presence of the courts
or to explain any anatomical preparation that an examiner may
place before him. The examination is held in the presence of
such of the members and licentiates of the college as please to
attend. In Case a candidate should be rejected, he may> if he
conceive himself aggrieved^ apply to another tribunal appointed
for examining such candidates, viz. the court of assistants,
who are bound to examine him, and if his answering be such
as to merit their approbation, they are authorized to grant the
diploma. This court consists of twelve members and the
vice-president of the college. The members of both courts
give their time to the affairs of the college gratuitously ^ &c.
The examination of more than one candidate never takes
place in the same day, nor is it consistent with the laws of
the college that any candidate should undergo both his exami-
nations on the same day. Should a candidate be rejected^
he cannot present himself to the court of censors again till
after the expiration of a year from the date of his rejection.

Candidates for letters-testimonial, t. e. the diploma of the
college, are moreover required to give proof of having con-
formed to the course of education prescribed by the college.
Registered apprentices must lay before the court of censors the
following documents'".

1. A certificate signed by the president or vice-president
and two of the censors, that he has passed an examination as
to his acquaintance with the Greek and Latin languages in
the following books, viz., the works of Sallust, the first six
books of the Mneid of Virgil, the Satires and Epistles of
Horace, the Greek Testament, the Dialogues of Lucian selected
by Walker, and the first four books of Homer's Iliad, or a
certificate from his tutor that he has entered Trinity College
as a student.

2. His indenture of apprenticeship regularly registered, with
a certificate signed by the member or licentiate to whom he
has been indentured, that he has fully and perfectly served
such apprenticeship for the full term of five years.

3. A receipt showing that he has lodged to the credit of the

{resident, and for the use of the college, in the Bank of
reland, the sum of thirty guineas.

4. Certificates of attendance on three courses of lectures on
anatomy and physiology, three courses of lectures on the

* Vide 2-^the By-laws publUhed by the CoH^^

306 Medical Education in Dttblin.

theory and practice of surgery, and the performance of three
courses of dissections accompanied by demonstrations ; also
certificates of attendance on two courses of lectures on
chemistry, one course of lectures on materia medica, one
course of lectures on the practice of medicine^ one course
of lectures on midwifery, and one course of lectures on medical
jurisprudence, with such certificates of attendance on a hospital
or county infirmary, as may satisfy the court that the can-
didate has had sufficient opportunity of acquiring practical
information.

5. A thesis, essay, or dissertation in Latin or English, fairly
engrossed according to a prescribed form^ upon any of the
following subjects — anatomy, physiology, surgery, practice
of medicine, chemistry, materia medica, midwifery, or medical
jurisprudence; or, in place of such dissertation, a series of cases
collected in the hospital in which the candidate has attended,
illustrated by comments or observations.

And every registered pupil shall lay before the court of
censors the following documents :

1. A certificate, signed by the president or vice-president,
and two at least of the censors, that he has passed an exami-
nation as to his proficiency in the Greek and Latin languages
as presented for the registered apprentices, or a certificate
from his tutor that he has entered Trinity College.

2. A receipt showing that he has lodged to the credit of the
president and for the use of the college, in the Bank of
Ireland, the sum of thirty guineas.

3. Certificates showing that he has been engaged in the
study of his profession, in some hospital or school of medicine
or surgery, for the full term of five years.

4. Certificates of attendance in a surgical hospital containing
at least fifty patients, during five winter seasons of six months;
or three years^ if such attendance shall have been perfected
during the winter season.

5. Certificates of attendance on three courses of lectures on
anatomy and physiology, three courses of lectures on the
theory and practice of surgery, and the performance of three
courses of dissections accompanied by demonstrations ; also
certificates of attendance on two courses of lectures on
chemistry, one course of lectures on materia medica, one
course of lectures on the practice of medicine, one course of
lectures on midwifery, and one course of lectures on medical
jurisprudence.

6. A thesis or series of cases as enjoined for apprentices.
The college moreover takes upon itself to inquire into the

qualifications of such of its members as purpose to practise

Medical' Education in Dublin. 309

midwifery ; as appears by the following regulations respecting
the midwifery diploma of the college.

Examination of Candidates for the Midwifery Diploma.

1. The mark distinguishing practitioners in midwifery in
the printed lists of the college shall not be affixed to the name
of any member or licentiate of the college, unless he shall have
obtained the licence or diploma of the college, authorizing him
to practise that branch, or unless he shall have received
some recognized midwifery diploma, previous to the first of
May, 1831.

2. A court of examiners, consisting of a chairman, deputy
chairman, and six members, shall be elected by ballot on the
first Monday in January in each year, to examine such
members or licentiates as become candidates for the diploma
in midwifery ; any four of which court, with the chairman or
deputy-chairman, shall be competent to hold such exami-
nation.

3. Every candidate for the diploma in midwifery shall be
admitted to an examination if he shall have laid before the
court the following documents :

1. A receipt, showing that he has lodged to the credit of the
president and for the use of the college, in the Bank of Ireland,
the sum of five guineas.

2. Certificates of attendance on two courses of lectures on
midwifery, of three months' duration each, or one course of six
months.

3. A certificate of attendance in an established lying-in
hospital for a period of at least six months, or a certificate that
he has been a resident pupil for six months in some established
dispensary for lying-in women, and diseases of women and
children, devoted only to this branch of medicine, such hospital
or dispensary to be approved of and sanctioned by the
midwifery court.

4. Satisfactory evidence that he has conducted thirty
labour cases at least.

Candidates for the midwifery diploma shall be examined on
the anatomy and physiology of the female generative system, the
theory and practice of midwifery, and on the diseases of women
and children ; and if approved of by the court, shall receive a
licence or diploma to that efiect, to which the college seal shall
be affixed. Should a candidate be rejected, he shall not be
again admitted to an examination until a period of three months
shall have elapsed, and he shall then be obliged to produce

310 Medical Educatum in Dublin.

satisfactory evidence of his having been engaged in the study
of midwifery, subsequent to such rejection.

The school of surgery, under the direction of the court of
censors, is in everyway complete; it consists of two professors
of anatomy, two professors of surgery, and professors of the prac-
tice of medicine, of chemistry, of materia medica, of midwifery,
of medical jurisprudence, and two demonstrators of anatomy,
who superintend the pursuits of the students in practical ana-
tomy*. In addition to the museum and library of the college,
the students have access to a valuable museum, and IcDding
library, peculiarly devoted to the purposes of the school.

Few cities possess greater advantages for a school of medicine
and surgery than Dublin : with numerous hospitals, always
filled from a vast pauper population, abundant opportunities
for the cultivation of practical anatomy, and able lecturers
on the various branches of medical science, students here
find considerable facilities in following their professional
pursuits. Besides the school of physic, in connexion with
the university and the college of physicians, and the school
of surgery supported by the College of Surgeons, there are
several private schools conducted by private teachers of
anatomy and medicine. Of these, the two principal are that
in connexion with the Richmond surgical hospital, and that
situated in Park-street, both of which afford great advantages
to students. The hospitals of Dublin are in general very
well attended to by their respective medical oi&cers: clinical
medicine and surgery are there well and assiduously taught;
in one or two of them the German method of clinical instrnc-
tion has been adopted, and it is said with considerable success.

The winter session commences in Dublin at the beginning of
November, and terminates at the beginning of May. All the
courses of lectures are of this duration ; in consequence of
which, the lecturers are enabled to treat their respective
subjects in a very complete manner. From this circumstance,
as well as the facilities above-mentioned which Dublin possesses,
that city has obtained, and still bears, a high reputation as a
school of medicine.

* The fee for each ooorse of lectures at this school is two guineas, and that
for anatomical demonstrations and dissectionSi four guineas. The fees at ihe
other schools in Dublin are about the same.

REVIEWS.

DESCRIPTION OF ANCIENT ITALY,

A Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy ,
with a Map and Plan of Rome. By J. A. Cramer, D.D.
2 vols. Oxford, 1826.

It is a curious fact in the history of classical learning, that till
within these few years we had no work in the English language
on the ancient geography of Italy. It is another proof among
many which we have brought forward, that an improper direc-
tion has been given to the course of study pursued by the
young, and that many branches of literature have been neg-
lected which were best calculated to excite youthful curiosity,
and to draw them to the acquisition of useful information.
They spent much time on the prosody of the Latin lan-
guage, and all the peculiarities of its metrical laws, while his-
tory and geography were but little known ; and what ought to
have been of primary importance was regarded as a secondary
and subordinate object of study. Of late years, indeed, a gra-
dual amendment has been taking place ; the public attention
has been roused to the absurdity of the plans pursued, and we
feel confident that we are now entering on a course of public
instruction from which we may expect to derive much more
benefit. We believe that there is no study better fitted to
excite in the young a love of learning, than geographical in-
vestigations when they are united with historical facts.
Without an acquaintance with the country in which trans-
actions have been carried on, the narrative loses half its
interest, and the most important link which binds it to the
recollection is entirely dropped. Geography may be con-
sidered the connecting link between the past and the present;
all the actors in the important events of which we are read-
ing have disappeared, and even of their mightiest works
scarce a vestige may be left behind, yet the spot where they
lived and acted may still be pointed out. The field of Cannas
is no longer red with the blood of the slain; yet the face of
nature exhibits the same features which it did two thousand
years ago. It is this which renders the study of geography
delightful, and imparts to it an interest which perhaps no other
branch of literature possesses in the same degree.

It may be easily believed, that the ancient geography of Italy
early attracted the notice of the learned, and that no labour
was spared to discover and to elucidate the many remains of

312 Description of Ancient Italy.

antiquity with which it abounds. The talent of Italy, forbidden
by the jealousy of its governments to take part in the more
exciting and interesting events of the passing time, was glad to
expend its energy on subjects of this nature, and to indemnify
itself for present degradation by the glorious recollections of
the past. Many, no doubt, repeated to themselves the words
of their illustrious countryman, evidently poured forth with all
the vehemence of deeply mortified feelings : ' Hoc quoque la-
boris prsemium petam, ut me a conspectu malorum, quse nostra
tot per annos vidit sptas, tantisper certe dum prisca ilia toti
mente repeto^ avertam/ (Liv. Prtef,) It is chiefly no doubt to
this circumstance that we owe the numerous works which Italy
has produced to illustrate its topography. There is scarcely a
city of any note which has not furnished its own historian, and
as we might expect, all regaid their own particular district as
having more immediate claims on the attention of the world.
Such being the case, the English geographer has little else to do
than to condense and simplify the statements of facts so abun-
dantly furnished by others. He cannot, indeed, expect to com-
municate much original information ; but if he has himself ex-
amined the country in the way which it was his duty to do
before he attempted to write a work of this description, he
may be enabled to clear up some points which are still doubt-
ful, and to fill up some gaps which are yet apparent. If the
work be intended, as seems to have been the design of Dr.
Cramer's, to serve the traveller as a guide to the topographical
and classical antiquities of the country, it must not only supply
him with the chief events in the history of each city, but point
out to bis observation what fragments of its ancient glory have
escaped the hand of time. Without this information the
work will be incomplete, and the portion of most value to
the traveller will have been omitted. It is on this point more
particularly that we find Dr. Cramer to be deficient, though in
other matters he is by no means so accurate or exact as we had
a right to expect in a work which required little more than
common diligence and industry. Still we must consider our-
selves under obligations to him, as he is the first who has
attempted to draw the attention of the public towards this
subject.

It is curious that, in a work of this description. Dr. Cramer
should have thought it unnecessary to give some account,
however concise, of the various appellations by which Italia or
Vitellia was known at different times. Dionysius (i. 35) tells
us, that in the early ages the whole peninsula was called by the
Greeks, Hesperia or Ausonia, but by the natives, Saturnia. It
is evident that Hesperia must have included the whole of the

Description of Ancient Italy. . 313

countries to the west of Greece, Iberia^ or Spain, as well as
Italy, in the . same way as the word Anatolia was introduced
under the Greek empire to express the parts to the east of
Constantinople. Ausonia was a name extended by the Greeks
from a single district to the country beyond it, and being at
first synonymous with Opica was gradually extended to the
whole peninsula south of Rome. It is not improbable that
Satumia was used by the ancient Latins to designate a portion
of central Italy, of which Latium formed a part. We know at
least that the irregular metre in which the songs, as well as
poetical attempts of the early Romans, were written, received
the name of Saturnian verse. Again, the author gives a very
indistinct account of the progressive enlargements which the
meaning attached to the word Italia underwent, till it came to
embrace the whole of the peninsula bounded by the Alps. He
does indeed mention that Italia was originally applied to the
southern extremity of the boot, which is confined between the
gulfs of S. Euphemia and Squillace ; but he might have added
that it was next extended to the country bounded by a line from
Tarentunii to Posidonia, (Herod, i. 24 ; Dion. i. 73,) and that in
the age of Timaeus, (about B.C. 264,) it stretched as far as the
Tiber and beyond Picenum. Dr. Cramer says, (p. 2,) it was
not till the age of Augustus that it was applied to the whole
peninsula; but we find Polybius using it in its widest extent,
reaching to the Alps, and comprising Cisalpine Gaul and
Venetia. Niebuhr remarks, that in the middle ages the appel-
lation of Italy was restricted by the Emperor Maximian to the
five provinces in the north, iEmilia, Liguria, Flaminia, Venetia,
and Istria, thus ending at the opposite extremity from that
where it had arisen.

In respect to the seas which surrounded Italy, (vol. i. p. 3,)
we may remark that the Mare Inferum was far more frequently
known as the Mare Tuscum, and that the epithet of Etruscum
is but seldom applied to it ; but the author ought also to have
distinctly stated that the Mare Superum was used by the Ro-
mans to designate not only the Adriatic, but also the sea along
the east coast of Italy as far as the island of Sicily. It received
this name from the Romans who dwelt' to the west of the
Apennines, while the Greeks gave it the appellation of
'Aipw, (Gulf of Adria,) probably from the powerful maritime
city of Adria"*", near the mouth of the Po. Neither do we find '
that Dr. Cramer is aware of the existence of the appel-

* It is absurd enough to derive the name of MgKum Mare from some insig-
nificant rock, JEgB, in that sea. Is it not more likely to be connected with the
important commercial island of ^gina? We have heard of several ingenious
suggestions as to the origin of the name, ^gseum, but the consideration of them
cannot properly come in here.

814 DueHptim qfJneient Holy.

Ution of Mare Auaoniam, which was employed by the native
tribes of Italy to designate the southern portion of the sea,
inclading the gulfs of Tarenio, and SquiUacet and deriving
its name evidently from the earlier inhabitants of this part
of Italy, (Plin. iii. 5.) In later times it was called Mare
Siculum from its vicinity to the island of Sicily.

We believe that it would be unfair to attach any value to
the theory Dr. Cramer propounds respecting the origin of the
ancient inhabitants of Italy. We suspect that he merely pro-
posed it as a probable conjecture^ and as it does not suit the
design of his work to enter at great length into the subject, we
shall not deem it necessary to point out all the inconsistencies
and difficulties, which the attempt to maintain such an opbion
would cause. We are willing to allow that it is much more
easy in such a difficult and obscure subject to show how the
authority of ancient writers will not justify the inferences that
are deduced from them, than to furnish a theory which shall at
all points be unassailable. We shall, therefore, pass at once
to his geographical description of Liguria.

It seems to us by no means an improbable conjecture of
the author of the Roman History, published by the Society for
the Diffiision of Useful Knowledge, that there is some con*
nexion between the Ligeris (Loire), and the name of Ligures.
The Ligures were a powerful nation, extending, in the earliest
ages of which we have any tradition, from the Pyrenees as far
at least as the river Amo. The early Greeks, who had a vague
and indistinct notion of this western part of the world, seems
to have included under the name of Ligystica even the whole
of Spain, (Strab. ii. 92,) and made it the scene of some of their
most beautiful poetical fictions. They believed Hercules to have
passed along its coast; and it was to furnish him with arms
against the brave Ligurians that Jupiter rained a shower of round
pebbles, which are still to be seen near the mouth of the river
Rhone. It was in this way that the imaginative genius of the
Greeks explained that curioas natural phenomenon observed
at La Crau, between the Rhone and the marsh of Berre or
Martigues, where a piece of ground upwards of a mile in ex-
tent is found covered with large round pebbles. Dr. Cramer
states, that the Ligurians were certainly Celts, but we do not
believe that he can produce any fact of a sufficiently positive
nature to decide that point Dionysius, on the contrary, says,
that their extraction was unknown, and we are more inclined
to give credit to this historian, who seems to have been a
diligent investigator of the origin of ancient nations, than
to Plutarch, whose attention was less directed towards such
subjects. Strabo also says (ii. 128^) that they were not Celts^

Description qf Ancient Italy. 315

but that they resembled the Celts in their mode of life. But
we are not a littl^e surprised that Dr. Cramer should stig-
matizethe Ligurians as ^crafty and deceitful:' these qualities
were no doubt ascribed to them by Cato» as we find from a
fragment quoted by Servius ; but this severe opinion is at vari-»
ance with the statements of other writers, about whose impar-
tia^y no doubt can be raised. They were of a frugal, indus-
trious, patient, and contented disposition ; and a curious story
which is told by Diodorus (v. 33) respecting their women must
make us doubt, whether a people who cbuld exhibit such an
example of honourable conduct could be so deficient in moral
and virtuous qualities as Cato would have us believe. Besides,
Dr. Cramer ought to recollect that the Romans were, beyond
all other nations, easily biassed in their opinions, and were apt
to ascribe every bad quality to any people who had pertina-
ciously resisted their power. Such was die case with the Car-
thaginians, and such also we know it to have been with the
Ligurians. They carried on an obstinate contest with the
Romans for eighty years, and it was only after they had been
driven from every hold in their mountains, and even whole
tribes carried out of the country, that they could be said to be
completely conquered. Such a contest could not be carried on
without exciting feelings of exasperation in the minds of the
Romans, that their giant power should so long be set at nought
by a people so much inferior in numbers and strength ; and as
Cato wrote about the time the Romans had completed their
conquest, it is not unreasonable to suppose that this circum-
stance caused him to pronounce an opinion so little consonant
with justice. The boundary which Dr. Cramer gives for the
Ligurians to the north-west is the Alpes Maritimae, but this is
by no means sufficiently defined, as the Maritime Alps across
which the Romans in later times carried the Via Aurelia,
were not merely the mountains stretching from Monaco into
the interior towards Mons Vesulus at the foot of which rose
the river Poy but the term also was used by the Romans
to designate the ridge which ran along the coast as far as
Savona, where the mountains began to be considered as
belonging to the Apennines. Strabo (iv. 211) seems even to
carry them forward as far as Genua. We have no objection
to the author placing the Salassi in Cisalpine Gaul, but he
ought to have stated that they were a Ligurian tribe, as well
as the Libicii and Laevi who occupied the country round Ver-
celli, and founded the city of Pavia under the name of Tici-
num. Plin. iii. 17.

The cities of Liguria are of little moment ; the coast from
Monaco to the Avno furnishes few places where even the

816 Descriptioti of Ancient Italy.

smallest vessels can ride at anchor in safety. Still therie are
a considerable nnmber of villages mentioned in the itineraries
and in some of the ancient geographers, and Dr. Cramer seems
to have given^ upon the whole, a very fair account of them. He
considers, however, and very justly, that geography can only
be deemed useful from its connexion with history, and he tells
us that, by a frequent reference to the classical works of anti-
quity, he endeavours to give his work a greater interest than it
could have laid claim to as one of mere topographical nomen-
clature. We shall, however, in the course of this examination
have frequent opportunities of showing that the author has by
no means always employed suitable diligence in verifying the
information which he gives us. Thus if he had examined the
account given of Vada Sabatia (p. 25) in the collection of
Cicero's Letters, Ad Diversos (xi. 13 and 10), he would
have found that the information respecting the flight of An-
tony was furnished by D. Brutus to Cicero, and not by the
latter to any other person ; and again at Genua (p. 25), he
would not have asserted that it is first mentioned in history by
Livy (xxviii. 46), as having been destroyed by Mago the Car-
thaginian, for that historian had already noticed it (xxi. 32)
as the place where Scipio had landed his troops from Gaul on
his way to oppose Hannibal after be crossed the Alps. Genua
was the principal city of trade for the Ligurians, to which they
brought their various commodities, such as cattle, skins, honey,
and particularly richly veined timber, which the Romans used
for making tables, and thought scarcely inferior to those of
cedar- wood. Dr. Cramer expressly states that there was no
wine grown on their coast ; but Strabo will not bear him out
in this assertion : his words are * o V (ofvof ) vap" avrois oKiyos kari
mrrlTfis dvaryt^oSf which the author will scarcely maintain as of
the same import with his statement.

It is scarcely worth while to notice the position of the insig-
nificant village of Ricina ; but if Dr. Cramer be correct in
placing it at ReccOy then its distance from G«nua as given by
the Itinerary is wrong : it ought to be seven instead of twelve
miles. We may also observe that in the map which accom-
panies his work he is incorrect in placing the village of Anao
Portus to the east of Avisio. Their position ought to be exactly
reversed. There are also a few typographical blunders, which
a little more care would have enabled him to avoid : thus the
river M erula, the Lucus of the Peutingerian Table, is now
Aroscia, not Arosoia^ and Rutuba is La Roja, not Rotta,

Our readers are aware that there are two rivers in the north-
west portion of Italy, to which the Romans applied the name
of Duria or Durias, Towards the source of .the Duria Minor,

Description of Ancient Itnfy. 317

lay the dominions of a powerful Alpine chieftain of the name of
Cottius, who set at defiance the power of Rome for a consi-
derable period, but was at last, by the conciliatory measures of
Augustus, induced to acknowledge at least a nominal depen-
dence on the Roman empire. Like many both before and
after him, he was gained over by a gewgaw ; he received the
honorary title of prefect. Dr. Cramer states that Claudius
restored to him the title of king, whereas Dion Cassius
(Ix. 24) says> Ma^xo; lovXlco K-orrlo) rriv 'Sjotroa>av dp^Tjv tIv bttI rwv
■Akasoi/v rwv ofMOtyviMOiiv si^e vqoffeir'nv^'nffe Sadikia rors vpojrov
6vofAd<T»s, It was to his grandson, probably, that the title of king
was given, and whose dominions he increased by adding perhaps
the principality of Ideonnus, mentioned by Strabo, and wiio
seems to have possessed that part of the Maritime Alps which
separated Piedmont from Nice. This enables us to explain
somewhat satisfactorily the meaning that was attached to the
Alpes Cottise in the middle ages. At first it is well known
that, by that name, they designated Mont Genh;re, but in the
seventh and eighth centuries we find Paulus Diaconus speak-
ing of it as ^, distinct province, which extended from the con-
fines of Gaul towards the east, including the whole country
along the Maritime Alps as far as Genua. It was probably
therefore on this side that the kingdom of Cottius received its
enlargement. Along the banks of the Duria Minor^ and across
the Alpes Cottise, lay one of the great thoroughfares which led
from the fertile valley of the Po into France by the mountain-
torrent Durance, Dr. Cramer seems to think that there were
two roads which led by different directions to the summit of
this mountain range called, by Ammianus Marcellinus, Matrona,
the one th^t we have just mentioned, and another along the
banks of the rivulet Cluso, Chissone, The only reason that
can induce him to suppose so is, that there are two towns
mentioned in this direction which he cannot otherwise dispose
of. One of these is Ocelum, which both Caesar and Strabo
mention as the last town of Italy on this road, and which
D'Anville has placed at Uxeau near the source of the
Chissone, and the other is Scincomagus stated by Pliny and
Strabo as close to the highest pinnacle of the Cottian Alps^
and placed by D'Anville at Seguin. It seems, however, impro-
bable that the road should ever have been changed, and also
that we should jind no resting place of any description between
Turin and Uxeau ^ a very considerable distance, and of course
a road by no means easy of ascent. We are, therefore, inclined
to agree with Mannert, who supposes that the post-house
Ad Fines, now Aviglianai on the banks of the Duria, was

318 DncriptUm of Ancient Italy.

originally named Ocelum, while Ad Martis Fannnit now Ouht
sixteen miles south-west of Segusio, the capital and burial-
place of Cottius, may have been, in the language of the moun-
taineers, called Scincomagus**.

The fertility of the valley of the Po, and the luxuriance of
its plains, seem to have attracted at a very early period the
attention of the Gauls : the lofty mountains of the Alps proved
no obstacle of sufficient strength to prevent the irruption of
numerous hordes of these barbarians. They gradually expelled
the Tusci, who were the occupiers of these fertile plains,
and each tribe took possession of the portion which their
own bravery and the fortune of war threw in their way. It
is for this reason that the Romans, after they had com-
pelled these tribes to submit to their sway, called this
Eortion of Italy, Gallia Cisalpina. They had frequently
raved the power of Rome, and had even once taken the
city. Dr. Cramer says (p. 41) that on this occasion
Polybius (ii. 18) tells us it was saved by the ' gold of the
vanquished' ; but on referring to the passage, we find, on the
contrary^ that the historian ascribes its relief to a yery different
cause. He says, • When they heard that the Venetians, taking
occasion from their absence, had entered their territories
with an army, they consented to a treaty with the Romans,
restored their city to them, and returned back to their own
country.' But perhaps the author was thinking of Polyb. i.
6 ; ii. i2y Sueton, Tib. cap. 3, and other passages in connexion
with that referred to.

The Padus, called by the poets Eridanus, flowed through
the centre of the province, and received many tributary streams
from both the Alpine range, and Apennines. Dr. Cramer says
(p. 45) that its Celtic name was Bodencus, but according to
Pliny, (iii. 16) this was the appellation given it by the
Ligurians, signifying in their language the same as 'ffundo
carens, bottomless. Its two tributaries most celebrated in
history are the Ticinus and Trebia, both remarkable for the
defeat of Scipio by Hannibal. The exact spot where the
battles took place has long been a subject of dispute among
modern writers; but we think that, in regard to the battle
of the Ticinus^ it is satisfactorily proved Uiat it must have

* This Gallic termination magus is foand in many towns : thns Csesaro magus,
Chelmt/ord, in Britain, also the ancient name of Beauvaitf in France ; Borbeto-
magus, Wormt; Noyiomagus, Spires. Has the Phcsnician word magalia any
relation to the Celtic P

f There seems indeed no reason for this etymon of Pliny ; but Bodencus,
it has been observed^ has an odd resemblance to the German Boden, and the
Boden'4€e (Lak6 Constance).

Deicription of Ancient Italy. 319

taken place on the right bank of the river, somewhat south of
the city Novara^ while the battle of the Trebia was fought on
the left bank of the river, between it and the Tidone*. The
river Po frequently overflowed its banks, more frequently after
it had received the Trebia, and thereby caused the country
between Piacentia and Parma to be covered with marshes.
They were drained by ^milius Scaurus, who commanded the
Roman armies in this province a. c. 115. Dr. Cramer adopts
the opinion of Lorenzo Guazzesi that these were the marshes
which Hannibal traversed before he entered into Etruria^ and
which are described; both by Polybius and Livy^ as of so
formidable a nature. Dr. Cramer indeed places these marshes
more close to the foot of the north slope of the Apennines,
towards the sources of the river IVebbiaf Taro, and Panaro,
and imagines that this is sufficiently proved by the tes-
timony of Strabo (v. 217) ; but the geographer places them
close to the banks of the Po, though he certainly says that
they had been traversed by Hannibal. This opinion^ however,
is inconsistent with the historical accounts handed down to us
by Polybius and Livy^ from whom the geographer differs
entirely, for we do not think that the text of the Greek histo-
rian is so irreconcilable to that of Livy, as Dr. Cramer appears
to imagine. We believe with Vaudoncourt that Hannibal
crossed the Apennines by the road which leads from Parma to
Pontremoli and Larzana, and that the marshes are those
now called Paludi di Fuccechio, a little above the entrance of
the Arno into the sea. At least we believe that these are the
remains of the marshes, for we know that the rich valley of
the Arno was in earlier times a lake and swamp. One of
these lakes extended from Segna to below Fiesole and towards
Prato. The valley was blocked up by Mount Gonfalinaj
through which a passage has been cut> which enabled the
waters to be drained off towards Pisa. Water once covered the
spot where Florence now stands, and even in the middle ages
this city experienced dreadful inundations. The face of this
part of the country, therefore, has been much changed, and we
mast not be surprised if we do not find marshes of so fearful a
character as the ancient historians represent them.

One of the most powerful as well as numerous tribes in
Cisalpine Gaul was the Insubres, whose chief town was
Mediolanum, Milan^ which seems to have reached its highest
state of splendour towards the end of the fourth century,
when Ausonius assigns it the rank of the sixth town in the
Roman empire. Dr. Cramer ought to have traced its history a
little lower and a little more fully than he has done. It was
* See Vaudoncourt; Hist, des Campagnes d'Annibal, Yoh ii

320 Descr^Uoh of Ancient Italy.

destroyed by the Goths and Burgundians because it had joined
Belisarius ; and Procopius adds that 360,000 inhabitants were
put to death, no doubt a great exaggeration, but which still
proves that it must have been one of the most populous cities
in the west. When the power of the Lombards superseded
that of the Goths, Mediolanum opened its gates to the con-
queror without resistance; but as it had not yet recovered
from the severe blow which it had received, the Lombard
princes resided chiefly at Ticinum, Pavia. We need scarcely
add that Milano now is one of the most flourishing cities of
Italy. Near it Dr. Cramer tells us was the small village
of Modicia, now Monza; he might have added, that it was
frequently the residence of Theodoric, king of the Goths^ who
built a magniflcent palace in its vicinity. On the opposite
side of the river» Theudelinda, queen of the Lombards, dedi-
cated a splendid church to John the Baptist^ and presented to
it, among other valuable treasures, the celebrated iron crown of
Lombardy. This crown, it is well known, derived its value from
the interior having a small iron rim round it, which was said to
be made from a nail of the cross of Christ, (Paul. Diacon. iv. 22.)
It is still preserved as a curiosity, and it may be recollected
that Napoleon availed himself of the superstitious feelings
connected with it in the minds of the people to strengthen his
political power. We need only remind the reader of modem
Italian literature of the interesting story of the Mbnaca di
Monza, Dr. Cramer places to the west of Milan the Raudii
Cam pi, the plains memorable for the defeat of the Cimbri by
Marius; but, though Plutarch describes them as lying in the
vicinity of Vercella;, the historical accounts of other authors
would lead us to suppose that they must be placed close to
Verona. The Cimbri entered Italy by the Tyrol, and having
forced the consul Catulus back on the Athesis, Adige, they
crossed that river ; by this time Marius had come up, when
the battle took place in which they were defeated. Now
to the west of Verona, there was a field, called, in the middle
ages. Campus Sardis, where it appears that Theodoric defeated
Odoacer, and where, in still later times, king Antharius
celebrated his marriage with the princess Theudelioda. There
is every reason to believe that this spot witnessed the defeat
of the Cimbri, Plutarch, who cannot be supposed to have
had a very accurate idea of the geography of this portion of
Italy, was wrong in conceiving it to be near Vercellse. It
may even be imagined that the last letters of the word
have been corrupted, and that we ought to read Verona.
We are surprised that Dr. Cramer, in his account of Verpna,
should have omitted all allusion to the remains of its amphi-

Description hf Ancient Italy. S21

theatre^ which is better preserved than even ihe Colosseum
itself. After these two, the only other amphitheatre in Italy,
which has escaped in any considerable degree the destructive
hand of time, is that of Capua'*'.

To the south-east of Milan, on the river AddUy stood a;
strong and important place in the Gallic wars, called by
Polybius Acerrffl, now Gherra, which Dr. Cramer warns his
readers against confounding with another of the same name in
Campania, referring at the same time to Strabo, (v. 216.)
Now there was no doubt a city Acerrae near Naples, and a
small village of that name still remains to attest the truth of
the remark ; but Strabo, in the passage quoted, refers to a town
of this name which was situated to the south of the river
Po» and on the road from Placentia to Ariminum : and
this is confirmed by Pliny, (iii. 14.) Again, had the
author referred to Ammianus, (xv. 4) when he quotes him
for the position of the Campi Canini, he would have found
that their position to the north of the Lacus Verbanus,
Lago Maggiore, by no means agrees with the facts given by
that historian of the expedition of Constantius against the
Alemanni round the lake of Constance. He would there see
that they ought to be placed somewhere in the valley of the
Rhine, in the district of Grcedten. Comum, now Como, the
birth-place of Pliny the younger, was colonized first by Pompeius
Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great, next by Caius Scipio,
and not Cornelius, as Dr. Cramer gives it, and lastly by Julius
Caesar, who is said to have sent 5000 Greeks to settle here, and
gave it all the privileges which belong to a Roman corporation.
The author has omitted to state that Comum was one of the
most celebrated cities in Italy for its iron manufactory, rivalling
those of Bilbilis in the present kingdom of Aragon in Spain.

Between Cremona and Mantua, at no great distance from
Andes, the birth-place of Virgil, lay a small town, Bedriacum,
or Bebriacum, which D^AnviUe places correctly at Cividale.
It was rendered remarkable by two important battles having
been fought in its vicinity, which Dr. Cramer seems to think
took place on the same spot. Tacitus (ii. 23, 41) gives us
a very circumstantial account of both these events ; and from
him we gather that the first which was fought between the gene-
rals of Otho and Vitellius, must have taken place far to

* We are acquainted with the amphitheatres of Pompeii and Herculaneara,
but they are both of a very small size. That of Lucera in Apulia we have
leen ; it has been about the size of that of Pompeii, but it is now nearly destroyed.
In Greece it is curious that the theatre in the best state of preservation is that
which exists near Trametzus in Epirus, not far from Jo&nnina. The next is at
Sto lero, the site of the ancient temple of iEsculapius near Epidaurusin Argolis.
Some of those in Asia Minor are equally complete} or more so.

Jan.^April, 1834. V

3SS2 DeicripHan o/AneUnU Italy.

the 80oth> in the vicinity of the Po» and on the road which led
along the banks of this river from Cremona to Reggio and
Modena. The second battle between the troops of Vitellios
and Antonius, lieutenant of Vespasian, was fought eight miles
westward of Bedriacum, on the public road which led to
Cremona ; when the former were defeated, they fled to Cre-
monai and being pursued by the army of Vespasian, brought
down on this city all the evils which could be inflicted by the
sword of fierce and unrelenting mercenaries.

Dr. Cramer has omitted to notice the Regio AIliana> so cele-
brated for the excellence of its flax»* which was situated be-
tween the Po and the Ticinus. (Plin. xix., 1.) He is correct,
we think, in his opinion respecting the Rubicon being formed
by several small streams, which unite about a mile from the
sea, and then assume the name of Fiumicino* Guastazzi,
an Italian writer, seems to have proved satisfactorily, that it is
a stream a little to the north of Ariminum, called Urgone or
Migone at its source, which, after receiving several tributaries,
assumes the name of JFiumicino,

In his account of Etruria, Dr^ Cramer enters somewhat
minutely into the intricate history of the early inhabitants of
this portion of Italy, and though he has certainly not thrown
much new light on the subject^ or cleared away the difficulties
connected with it, still it is a very fair attempt, in which he
would have succeeded more completely, if he had availed
himself of the laborious investigations of Niebuhrf . Our
limits will preclude us from an examination of the theory
he advocates: a subject of this kind would require more
space than we can here devote to it, to render it at all
interesting to the general reader. The inhabitants of Etruria
appear to have been a highly refined people before Rome
ever existed, but we seek in vain> from the scanty fragments
of antiquity^ to discover the cause of the vast superiority
of their political institutions, of their progress in naviga-
tion, commerce, and the other arts of civilized life. It is well
known that, like the lonians, they had twelve cities, but Dr.
Cramer has not, at least as far as we have been able to dis«
cover, made any attempt to enumerate them. Two we must
allow that we are unable to distinguish, but the other ten may
be pretty accurately made out. Livy (xxviii. 45.) mentions
eight, when he is enumerating the allies who volunteered to for-

* The aneients oonsiclered tlie flax grown at Setabis, Xaiiva^ in the \mg*
dom of FiUwtiay in Spain, as of the finest quality ; the flax of Ritubium, ReH»H>ia^
near Torttmoy south of the Po, as next ; and that of the AJliaaa R^e^ at of
third>rate quality.

f See Journal of Education, ziii* pi 166, &c*

Description 0/ Ancient Italy. 323

wftrd Scipib's armafnent ; they were Ceere^ Tarquinii, Populo*
nium, Volaterne^ Arretium, Perusia, Clusium^ Rusellse^ and to
these we may add Veii and Vulsinii, which had been destroyed.
We may doubt whether Populonium was one of the original
twelve cities^ as it was a colony from Volaterras, but it may have
occupied the place of Vetulonia, a city which had disappeared
at a very early period, never being mentioned in the historical
age of Rome. It is probable that they replaced such as were
extinct^ at least if we mayjudge from the customof the Achseans*
who certainly made up the number of twelve cities, whenever it
fell short. The Latin cities, too, seem always to have been
thirty at every different epoch. It will be observed that we still
want two to complete the number, but whether we ought to fill
it up by adding Cortona, Cosa, Capena or Feesulae, is, we con*
fess, a question which we are unable to answer.

In the north of £truria, near the mouth of the Macra^ stood
the city of Luna, the ruins of which are still seen at Luni^ a little
below Sarzana : it was surrounded by lofty mountains^ from
which, according to Strabo, one might distinsuish the island of
Sardinia, and a great portion of the coast of Italy ' to the right
and left/

Modern Italian philologists pretend to assert that the name
of the village of Carrara is derived from an Etruscan word
which signified the same as ieK^wi in Greek, and Luna in
Latin. Dr. Cramer tells us that Luna formed part of Liguria,
till the new division under Augustus, but we think it was sepa*
rated from that province at a much earlier period ; according to
Livy (xli. 13.), it was taken from the Ligurians, 177 a.c, and^
had a Roman colony planted there at that time.

To the south of Luna> the small tributary to the Arno, called
now Serchio, was anciently Auser. It is the A\(tol^ of Strabo,
and now falls into the sea by a separate channel, though we are
told that, in former times, the junction of these two streams
took place with such violence, that the waters rose to a height
which prevented the opposite bank from being seen. It is
not known at what time this change took place, but there
are still traces of the ancient course of the river, and of its
original name in the small rivulet Osari, which, after running
about seven miles through a marshy country lying between the
Serchio and Amo^ falls into the sea, by a distinct mouth.
Dr. Cramer, in giving an account of the principal historical
event that took place at Lnca, states that Tib. Gracchus retired

* As 8 proof of this, see the change that had taken place in the list of dtiei,
between the time of Herodotus and Folybius. Though the number be the same,
two of the old had dropped, and two new citiM supply their place, Herodot.
i. 146 } Polyb. U. 41.

Y 2

324 DeicripHon o/Aneietii Italy.

to this cityi after the unfortunate campaign on the Trebia,
and refera us for the correctness of this statement to Livy.
(xxi. 59.) We at first imagined that the insertion of the
name of Tib. Gracchus must have been a mere oversight,
but as this is repeated (at page 178), we are inclined to
believe that the author has no very clear ideas of this por-
tion of history, else he could never have fallen into the
mistake of supposing that Tib. Gracchus took any part
in the second runic war. The general to whom he ought to
have alluded was Tib. Sempronius Longus; and he is
wrong also in stating that his retreat on Luca was imme-
diately subsequent to the campaign on the Trebia. He, in
fact, proceeded to Rome to hold the consular comitia^ and then
returned to his colleague Scipio at Placentia, where he fought
an indecisive batde with Hannibal, and it was after this en-
gagement that he proceeded to Luca, to be ready to oppose
him, should he venture across the Apennines.

We cannot agree with Dr. Cramer, that the Portus Pisanus,
described by Rutilius as exciting his admiration, could have
been situated at the mouth of the Amo, twenty stadia distant
from Pisse, according to Strabo, but more correctly fifty. No
great and commodious harbour^ such as that of Pisae is de-
scribed to have been^ could ever have existed at this spot^ un-
less some greater change than what we have any reason to be-
lieve has taken place in the form of the coast. We would place
the harbour . where Ingham is now found, and where the
ancient village of Triturrita may be also fixed. The distance
of nine miles from the mouth of the river, as given in the
Maritime Itinerary, would exactly suit this spot. The village
Ad Herculem, in the Itinerary of Antonine, is not to be con-
founded with Leg horn f as some geographers have done ; it
will be found to be an inland village. The Portus Labro of
Cicero is, we believe, nothing else than the Salebro of the
Itineraries, situated close to the Lacus Prelius or Prilis, Lago
di Castiglione. In respect to this lake^ Dr. Cramer is wrong
in supposing that Pliny alludes to it ; he does indeed mention
a river of this name^ which, rising in the hills above the ancient
city of Vetulonii, fell into the lake, and is now called Bruno.

Tarquinii, one of the most powerful cities of ancient Etruria,
is said by the author^ (I. p. 198) to be found at a spot called
Turchina, which in his map he places above five miles
E.N.E. of Corneto. Some years ago we went to this vicinity
for the purpose of examining these ruins, and after a diligent
search we were unsuccessful in discovering any remains bearing
this name. Six miles from Corneto there is an extensive wood
called Turchinaf but the ruins of Tarquinii are found at a spot

Description of Jncieht Italy. 325

called Monte di Civithy two miles to the ea^t of Cometo.
About a mile from the ancient city was the burial ground on
a hill^ close to Cometo ; here are the celebrated tombs dis-
covered lately, the walls of which are covered with ancient
paintings and inscriptions in the Etruscan language. Many
valuable cinerary urns and trinkets have been found. Not
far from this city are the ruins of Tuscania, at the village of
Toscanella, where Dr. Cramer has placed it : part of the
ancient walls^ a bridge across the Marta^ and a consider-
able number of pillars now decorating the church of St.
\s Pietro^ are all the remains left to point out the site of Tuscania.

In this vicinity was the castle mentioned by Cicero, (Pro.
Csecin. 7,) under the name of Axia, now Castel d* Asso^ and
which has latterly been brought into notice by the discovery
of tombs cut out in the rock, on which are engraved inscrip-
tions in the Etruscan characters. They were first published
in an ItaUan journal a few years ago. In searching for these
tombs near this castle, which is evidently a fortress of the
middle ages, we stumbled on very considerable remains of an
ancient city situated in a wood about half a mile from the
castle. The walls, which, in many parts, are nearly entire, have
extended for upwards of three-fourths of a mile ; at one
side, on which there was a deep glen, the rock had been per^
forated to form a gateway, and this part was perfectly preserved.
A shepherd whom we found on the spot, said that it was known
by the inhabitants in the vicinity under the name of Civita^ the
appellation invariably applied in Italy to the site of an ancient
town. The tombs which we were so anxious to examine, we
believe we succeeded in finding, but the most careful scrutiny
did not enable us to perceive any inscriptions. The chambers
to which we allude are found in the face of the rock beyond
the castle, and on the right hand side of the glen. They are
now very much injured, apparently being employed by the
shepherds for penning their goats and sheep. Proceeding
from Civita towards Castel Cordigliano, another ruined
fortress of the middle ages, we fell in with two grottos or sub-
terraneous chambers cut in the rock, with the ruins of some
buildings round them. The country around is still covered
with thick woods, the remains of the Silva Ciminia, which
served for a time as a barrier to Etruria against the Romans.
Dr. Cramer is mistaken in confining it to the vicinity of the Lacus
Ciminus, Lago di Ptco* It extended between the rivers Marta
and Minio, as far as the coast, and to the east as far as Viterbo^
probably the site of Fanum Voltumnae, the spot where the
general assembly of the Etruscan nation was held on solemn
occasions. Near to Fiterbo was the ancient city of Ferenti-

328 Description of Ancient Itafy.

noin» from which Otho's family was descended ; its ruins tve
found to be extensive and in a good state of preservation, being
evidently of a very recent date ; the spot is still called Ferenti.
Balneum Regis Dr. Cramer supposes to be situated at Bag-
narea, but this is an entirely modem village, built within the
last century. The site of the ancient city was one mile distant,
at a spot now called Civiti, and the cause of this change is
rather curious. The city was situated on the pinnacle of a lime-
stone rock, which was united to the surrounding country only by
a narrow neck of land. This approach has been gradually worn
away by the weather, so that iu no part is it broader than ten
feet, and one portion of it having entirely given way, the rock
is now isolated. The gap was, in 1628, only about ten feet,
over which they had erected a temporary wooden bridge, but
it was quite clear that it would only require a few years to widen
it so much that no bridge could be thrown across. At Civitd
there are seen lying in front of the ancient cathedral several
marble pillars, which have evidently belonged to some temple,
but the most valuable piece of antiquity has been transferred
to the bishop's palace at Bagnarea. It is a magnificent
Etruscan urn, with a beautiful basso relievo, representing two
ancient bigae, with their horses and a number of figures
crowding after them, the whole in an excellent state of preser-
vation. Again, as to Herbanum, Dr. Cramer is wrong in
placing it at Orvieto, (Urbs vetus ?) which is built very like
Bagnareay on the top of a rock, whereas the ruins of the
ancient city are found a short distance beneath it, near the con-
fluence of the rivers Paglia and Ckiane. The author states
(p. 224,) that the Vadimonis Lacus, celebrated in the his*
tory of Rome for having witnessed the total defeat of the
Etruscans by the Romans 444 v.c, existed formerly close to
BassanOf but is now filled up with peat and rushes, information
which is in fact taken from Micali. Now the lake here alluded
to we found still in existence, and a portion of it entirely clear
from rushes, so that Micali must either not have examined it,
or the appearance of nature is now changed. There were,
however, no floating islands, such as are described by Pliny.
In its vicinity lies Horta, to which Virgil probably alludes.

Nursiaet Hortins classes populique Latini. — ^^En. vii., 715.

which still retains its ancient name, and must have been a
town of considerable importance, as beneath it we find the re«
mains of a magnificent bridge across the Tiber, called Ponte
dC Augtisto^ nearly in as perfect a state of preservation as the
bridge of Augustus at Nami.

Far to the south, near the mouth of the Tiber, is found

Description qf Andmt Italy ^ 327

Lorium^ a villa ia which Antoninus Pius was educated and died |
it is placed by Dr. Cramer at Cdutel Guido, but its ruins are
found at a site now called LoriOy two miles north of Cmtel
Guido, on the opposite side of the Via Aurelia% which led
forward to Centum Cellsi Civita Fecchiuy whose magnificent
harbour, built by Trajan, reminds us forcibly of the harbour of
Ramsgate, with this difference, however, that the piers thrown
out into the sea are of beautiful white marble. The remains of
the Mesia silva, a district taken by Ancus Mariius from the
Veientes (Li v. i, 33), are still found in the Bosco di Bctccanotp
The Umbri were one of the oldest and most numerous
nations of Italy. '^ Umbri antiquissimus Italiae populus/' says
Florus. (i. 17.) 6o old indeed were they, that the Greeks,
with their usual spirit of etymological trifling, pretended that
they were so called because they had been saved from some
great deluge (jiyJi^Qs.) The country which they inhabited
was of old very extensive, comprising not only what re-
tained the name of Umbria, but also the south of Etruria as
far as the river Umbro, and, according to some traditions,
the district occupied by the Sabines, between the Apenr
nines and the Tiber. To the north, we find them spreading
towards the Upper Sea and the Po, and maintaining an obsti-
nate contest with the Etruscans for the territory on the lower part
of the river. There are but few historical events of any im<-
portance connected with Umbria, so that an account of it is
little more than a bare enumeration of its cities. Dr. Cramer
might have made it somewhat more interesting, if he had
told us what remains of these ancient towns still exist.
Sarsina on the river Sapis,. AS'at/io, (p. 258,) celebrated as the
birth-place of the comic poet Plautus, still exhibits very con-
siderable ruins,, so that we can have no dtfiiculty in believing
Polybius (ii. 24), when he tells us that^ fighting singly against
Rome, this city supplied her with occasion for two triumphs*
It appears to have been as celebrated as Baias for its baths»

Nee tua Bajauas Sarsina malit aquas. — Mart. ix. 59.

and they are still used, being now called Bagni di S. ^gnese.
There is a tradition among the inhabitants that Faustina fre-
quently resided here for the sake of the warm baths, but
whether this lady be the wife of the Emperor Antoninus Pius,
or of Heliogabalus, we had no means of discovering. The
bath is still called il bagno delta Regina. The Communal
Palace is filled with Roman sepulchral inscriptionsi and the
cathedral is ornamented with ancient pillars of all sizes, and of

* L^rio is to tke right, aod (kiiel Gmdo to the left, of the Via Anrelia, at 709
proceed from Rom^. Neither iof them is exactly <m» th/9 Uoeof ro«4«

328 Dueriptian of Ancient Italy.

every different kind of marble. About eight miles from Sarsina
was situated Mons Feretrus, which has led modern writers to
suppose that a temple of Jupiter Feretrius must have existed
at this spot. It is placed at San Leo, the fortress where the
papal government imprison political offenders, but which, in
1828, contained only one prisoner, a subject of France* San
Leo is placed on the pinnacle of a lofty rock to which there is
only one narrow and difficult approach. The temple seems to
have been at a short distance from the fortress on a rising
ground called Monte Leone, where some ruins are seen. It is
said that the Cathedral of San Leo is built out of its remains ;
at all events it is decorated with a variety of ancient marble
pillars, with capitals ^hich do not belong to any particular
order of architecture. They are evidently the production of a
very rude age. They are adorned with representations of fish^ ot
bulls buttins at each other, and other strange figures.

The banks of the river Metaurus are celebrated for the
defeat and death of Asdrubal. The spot where this battle was
fought Dr. Cramer places close to Forum Sempronii, Fossom*
brone, between the pass of Furlo and that city. Now the
country in this vicinity is so mountainous, and the hills ap-
proach so closely to each other, that there would be no room
for two armies to draw themselves up in order of battle. The
tradition of the country people is, that the battle was fought
considerably higher up the river, where there is an extensive
plain called // Piano di San Silvestro, formed by the rece-
ding of the mountains on each side. It is about six miles
distant from Urbino, and on the south»east side of this plaiD>
on the right bank of the river, they point out a tower which
they call // Sepolcro d* Asdrubale. It is situated on Monte
d* JElce^ and is a round building of very coarse bricks, and we
should suppose of no remote antiquity, though, it is difficult to
say for what purpose it was erected on this insulated spot.
Again, Dr. Cramer is wrong in supposing that Fossombrone
is the exact site of the ancient town Forum Sempronii. The
ruins are found at the distance of one mile and a half from the
modern city, at the Chiesa di San Martina, down the river.
Proceeding southwards along the Via Flaminia, we reach the
Petra Pertusa, or Intercisa, now // Furlo, where the mountains
close so completely as to leave only a very narrow passage for
the rivulet Cantiano. The road has been carried through a per-
foration in the rock for the distance of about one hundred yards.
There is evidently no other way in which the road could have
passed m this direction, and we cannot therefore believe the
inscription which states that Vespasian caused it to be made.
This inscription, which was once placed at its entrance, b

Description of Ancient Italy. 329

DOW in the Museum of the Ducal Palace of Urbino. The
ancient bridges on the Via Flaminia in this vicinity are still in
as good a state of preservation as if they had been only built
yesterday. Within a distance of twelve miles near Cagli, the
ancient Callis, we observed three, Ponte delta Foce, Ponte
Mullea over the rivulet Bttso^ and Ponte di Smira, all built
of immense blocks of limestone. A little further on^ JLa
Schieggia is supposed to be the site of the Ad Ensem of the
Itineraries, or more correctly La Serra, a hill half a mile dis-
tant, on which we observed ruined buildings of ancient bricks.
About one mile from this spot to the north-east, the celebrated
Eugubian Tables were found at a place called Valle di RoUa
ed Ajale. These bronze tablets^ seven in number, partly in
the Etruscan, and partly in the Latin character^ were discovered
in 1444 A.D., and» according to Lanzi, relate entirely to the
mode of sacrifice and religious rites of the Umbrians. They
are now preserved in the Public Museum of Gubbio, the
ancient Iguvium, where some vestiges of the Temple of Jupiter
Apenninus^ whose oracle was consulted by the Emperor Clau-
dius, are still to be seen according to D^Anviile. If he be cor-
rect in placing it at San Vbaldo^ then the position of the
temple of Jupiter Apenn. on Dr. Cramer's map is wrong.
Gubbio lies immediately beneath the monastery of San Vbaldo^
but we could find no ancient remains on this hill, which rises to
a very considerable height above the city ; the opposite side of
this mountain is a perpendicular cliff. Neither did the Superior
of the Monastery seem aware of any ruins, though at its foot
we found a street called Strada del Giove Apennino. The
Amphitheatre of Iguvium is tolerably entire ; there are eighteen
of the lower arches still remaining, and three of the upper
row. There is also a square chamber called by the inhabitants
Colosseo Romano, but for what reason we are unable to state.
It has something of the appearance of an ancient tomb.

To the south of Gubbio lay Tadinum, in the vicinity of a
church dedicated not to S, Maria, as Dr. Cramer states, but
to San Antonio Taino^ where the peasantry are constantly
discovering coins, little images^ and lamps. The direction of
the public road has been changed^ for it no longer passes
through the site of this ancient city> near which Totila, king of
the Goths^ was defeated and mortally wounded in a battle with
Narses. Three miles from Nuceria, close to the Ponte di
Colle, an ancient Roman bridge^ are seen two arches composed
of immense stones^ but to what they belonged it is now im-
possible to determine. In respect to Assisium, Asdsi, Dr*
Cramer might have stated that the Church of San Filippo is
built on the ruins of the Temple of Minerva^ and that there

330 DeicripHon of Aneimt Italy ^

are six very fine Corinthian pillars still to be seen. It is s
mistake in the author to affirm that Mevania, the birth-plsce
of Propertius^ and famed for its widely extended plains and
rich pastures, was situated at the junction of the rivulets Timia
and Topino,* It is upwards of a mile from their confluence, on
the left bank of the Timia^ where ancient baths, and an amphi-
theatre, as large as that of Pompeii^ are still visible. The cathe«
dral is built of the stones taken from what was called JlJBagm
sacro, and the Communal Palace is full of sepalchral and
magisterial inscriptions. Of course, the inhabitants point out
the very house which belonged to Propertius. This rivulet
Timia, anciently Tinia, was joined by the celebrated stream
Clitumnus, which bursts at once from the side of the mouD«
tain, though by no means in a manner calculated to excite
astonishment, in Samnium, at Boiano, the ancient Bovianum,
we found a stream of much larger size rushing with great rapi'
dity from the side of Mons Tifernus. It was upwards of ten
feet across at once^ and its waters so cold that it was impossible
to retain the hand in them without the most excruciating pain.
There is a lake of considerable size high up among the moun-
tains, from which this stream is probably supplied. We may
mention that a phenomenon of the same kind is found in the
mountains of Siyria, on the road from Trieste to Vienna^
about six miles beyond Adelsberg, the Ad Pirum of the Itine*
raries, where a suite of subterraneous grottos^ filled with mo^
magnificent stalactites, runs underground for upwards of a mile*
The ruins of Trebia are not exactly on the site of Drevi
(Cramer^ p. 271), which is placed on the declivity of a hill near
the fountains of Clitumnus, but we found them in the plain be*
low, round the church of S* Pietro Rosso* At Spoletium^ so
celebrated for having withstood the attack of Hannibal on his
march through Umbria after the battle of the Thrasymene Lake>
they point out a gate called Porta (P Annibcde, which theinha*
bitants afiirm, of course, to be the actual gate attacked by that
general. Besides this^ there is a small arch of Drusus^ and a
temple to the Goddess of Concord, the entrance to which is
nearly entire. Dr. Cramer^ as in this instance, often neglects
to mention ancient remains^ which we think a great omission.
Close to the banks of the Tiber stood the important city
of Tuder^ Todi, famous for its worship of Mars. In this
case the modern town occupies the exact site of the ancient,
which is proved by the remains of its wails in dii&rent parts |
and the ruins of the Temple of Mars, of which five niches have
been preserved, and remains of pillars which shew it to have

* The map of the author does not agree with th^ text in this point, but we
have in all Buch cases considered the words as his real opinion.

Description of Ancient Uafy* 331

been of the Doric order. A little farther down the Tiber was
Ameria, one of the most ancient cities of Umbria, which boasted
of an origin greatly anterior to that of Rome itself. Dr.
Cramer ought to have noticed the magnificent remains of the
Cyclopic walls to be seen here, by far the most perfect speci-
men of any that we met in Italy. The walls are still from
fourteen to twenty feet in height^ and built of gigantic blocks
of polygonal stones fitted into each other"*^. In giving an ac'*
count of Interamna, Temi^ Dr. Cramer has omitted the most
important piece of information connected with it, that it was
the birth-place of Tacitus the historian, and also of the emperor
of the same name, if we are inclined to believe Vopiscus in bis
life of Florian.

Having now arrived on the frontiers of the country of the
Sabines, we shall make a short excursion into this part of Italy^
to point out a few errors and omissions which a little more
care would have enabled Dr. Cramer to avoid. We are now
close to the river Velinus, and the lake of the same name, which
Cicero tells us was first drained by Curius Dentatus ; but Dr.
Cramer seems to think that he * caused a channel to be made
for the river Velinus, through which the waters of that river
were carried into the Nar over a precipice of several hundred
feet.' This, in fact, is the celebrated fall of Temi; but if Dr.
Cramer had ever examined the natural appearance of the
country^ he would have been convinced that the waters of
the river Velinus must at all times have floned where they
do now. We examined this part of the country pretty
minutely, and we believe that Dentatus could only have
deepened the channel of the river, which is here far below the
natural surface of the ground, so as to draw off more of the
water from the Rosei Campi to which Cicero alludes. If the
iMgo Pie di Luco be the ancient Velinus for which he con*
structed this channel, we cannot imagine any reason for the
expense and labour which he must have expended on it. The
mountains close so completely on all sides^ in many parts being
nearly perpendicular, that the inhabitants never could have
reclaimed a sufficient portion of land to indemnify them for
their labour. A few wretched hovels, and the ruins of a castle
of the middle ages, are now found on its banks ; but the Villa
of Axitts> the friend of Cicero, has entirely disappeared^ if we

* Our readers are aware tliat Cyclopic walls are found built in different
ways. The rudest specimens are built of huge masses of rock roughly hewn
and piled together, with the interstices at the angles filled up by small stoneS|
but without mortar or cement of any kind. The best example is at Tiryns,
in Argolis. Another species is in stones of various sizes, also shaped poly-
gonally, and fitted with nicety one to another, but not laid in courses. Aioena
belongs to this last species along with Mycenn and Argos.

332 • Description of Ancient Italy*

are correct in supposing it to have been situated here. We
confess that we are inclined to look for the Lacus Velinus
higher up in the extensive valley stretching down from Keate.
This plain the ancients called Kosei Campi, some say from
its dewy freshness, and as there were and still are several lakes
in different parts of it which sometimes overflowed their banks,
it was of great importance that this should be prevented. Here
then we ought to look for the Ijacus Velinus. Not far from
this is Morro Fecchio, supposed to be the representative of the
ancient Marrubium ; but as Dionysius states, that it was at the
end of a lake which he places under Corsula^ Contigliano, and
therefore in the Rosei Campi, Morro, by no means agrees
with this account of Dionysius. It is at least three miles dis-
tant from the plain in the mountains, and exhibits no remains
of an ancient town. On a hill close to Contigliano^ we found
ruins and an ancient tomb; but the lake which Dionysius
places beneath it with the island Issa> is no longer visible. This
vicinity was studded with the ancient cities of the Aborigines*,
but as most of them had been destroyed at the time when
Dionysius (i. 14) wrote, it is very difficult now to fix their
position. They were all at a moderate distance from Reate^
which Dionysius seems to take as a central point. Thus
Palantium, from which the Palatine Mount at Rome derived
its name, was situated twenty-five stadia from Reate/ and is
supposed to have been placed on a hill called Palazzo^ to the
right of the Rq^i Campi. The hill is now covered with wood,
and on. its top there is a tower of the middle ages. At its foot
we found a few letters of an ancient inscription, but too few to
enable us to decide for what purpose it had been erected. Of
Batia, Dr. Cramer (p. 317) confesses himself unable to fix the
position. It was^ according to ancient authorities, thirty stadia
from Reate. Now up the Velinus^ near the right bank, we found
a farm-house called Vati di Pozzolo, and, as the distance ex-
actly suits> we would fix the ancient Batia here. Proceeding
two miles further up the right bank of the river towards Civita
Ducale, we came on the ruins of an ancient city, which
is situated about two hundred yards from the present road.
Nothing but the foundation stones of a polygonal form now
remain. Again^ about two miles further on, nearer to Civita
Ducale, we discovered the remains of another ancient city,' and
as the distance from Reate agrees with the forty stadiaf given

* We use the word Aborigines in the same sense as Dionysius, without
stopping here to inquire whether he is correct in his opinion. Dionysius thinks
them to be the same people as the Oenotri. (i. 13.)

f Dr. Cramer places Tiora three hundred stadia from Beate ; but there ar9
several reasons for believing that this is not the correct number.

Description of Ancient Italy, 333 '

to Tiora Matieua by Diooysius, it seems not improbable that
this may be the site of that ancient town. If this be correct^
we can have no difficulty in giving a name to the other city
which we discovered. It is Lista, the metropolis of the Abori-
gines, twenty-four stadia from Tiora, and we are then able to
perceive why the inhabitants fled to Reate> when their city
was taken and sacked by the inhabitants of Amiternum.
(Dionys. i. 14.) The position given to Lista> by Dr. Cramer,
is far too distant from Reate, to explain satisfactorily this
event. Higher up the river we come to a plain, one. mile and
a*half in breadth, formed by the receding of the mountains
where Cutiliae was situated, and a lake with a floating island
on its surface. There are three distinct lakes in this plain^ but
no appearance of any floating island. In many different parts
the water bubbles up exactly as if it were] boiling, though by
no means to the same height as in the Lake Ampsanctus> of
which we shall have to speak hereafter. Close to these
mineral waters there are extensive ruins, probably of the baths
to which Vespasian frequently resorted^ and where he died*
In the plain, under the village o( Patemo, are the ruins of the
ancient Cutilise^ an aboriginal city of great antiquity.

We now return to Reate, and proceed along the Via
Salaria, which led to Rome. The modern road does not follow
exactly the same direction as the ancient^ which seems to have
gone up the banks of the rivulet Telonius. This is proved
by the existence of an ancient bridge, called Ponte di Sam-
buchiy at a considerable distance from the present road, and
which we stumbled on by mere accident. It was a curious
example of the labour and pains taken by the Romans to ren-
der their roads perfect. Though the stream over which it
was thrown was so small, that the arch was only four feet in
width, the walls extended fifty feet on each side» and were
built of immense blocks of stone. The bridge is consequently
in as perfect a state as when it was built. About eight miles
farther on, we reach the small village of St. Lorenzo, where
there are very considerable remains of Roman brick-work, and
one spot is called 2n7ai6(£/;2&a> because there were baths here
to which the emperor Titus used to resort. At Osteria JVuova,
about eight miles distant, we find the small inn evidently con-
structed in an ancient tomb ; the stones of which it was built
are of a gigantic size, and in the plain beyond, at a spot called
Madonna delta Colonna, are the ruins of an ancient town^
which inscriptions prove to have been Trebula Mutusca or
Suffena, both of them belonging to the Aborigines. The posi-
tion of Cures, distinguished as the birth-place of Numa, was
long a subject of dispute^ till Holstenius^ led probably by the

834 DeieripHon

resemblance of the naant, fixed it et Corre$e. The ancient town
was not exactly on the site of the modern village, which lies
in a hoUow> bat abont half a mile distant^ on the ridge of a
rising groand towards Jfodonna deW Arce, where are observed
the remains of ancient buildings. According to Dionysias, the
cities of the Aborigines stretched as far as this vicinity, and in
passing along towards the heights of Locretilis^ now Si. Gen*
nara^t we discovered the remains of severaL Leaving Carrete
behind ns^ we crossed the great public road to Rome^ and pro*
ceeded along a narrow path which led towards tht village
Libretti. On passing a small stream, called by the peasants
La Moletta deUa Pantanella^ there are seen in the wood im-
mense blocks of stone, and the foundations of buildings ; hsif
a mile farther on> you reach a spot called S* Biagio^ where
the hill is covered with ruins, in a much more perfect state of
preservation than those found at Tusculum. The distance
from Reate would incline us to place the village Sana here,
where Dionysius tells us there was an ancient temple of
Mars. Then in the plain close to the village Libretti^ under
Mount Terravales you come upon the remains of another
ancient city^ which may be the Mephyla of Dionysius. Ap-
proaching still closer to the first ascent of the heights of
Lucretilis, not far from the modem village Mvrricone, yoa
find a spot called II Rattone^ covered also with ruins^ which
may be the ancient Orvinium, where Dionysius places tombs
of great magnificence. Near this spot there are two long
vaulted chambers, with curious fretted roofs and mosaic
pavement, but which are in too perfect a state to allow us to
imagine they are the tombs alluded to by Dionysius. We
may now ascend the ridge of Lucretilis and get down into the
valley of Digentia, where Horace's Sabine farm was placed ;
but near the highest point of this mountain, we fall in with
what the peasantry call La Vena scriita, which is an in-
scription engraved on the natural rock. The rock is twelve
feet high» and ten broad ; the letters are four inches in height,
and between each there is a point. They are the following:-—

F.Q.S • M.A.R.R.
F.C.

with a few more, too much obliterated to be made out The
form of the letters, as far as we were able to judge, would not
justify us in ascribing to them any great antiquity. Not far

* Why Dr. Cramer «av8 Lucretilis is now LibretU, we do not know. LibreUi
if tlie name of a imaU Tillage, but S» Gennaro i% the appellation of Uie motm-
lain.

JDescription of Ancient Italy. 335

from this 8pot> on an opposite hill called La Sponga, we ob-
served considerable ruins> but as they were separated from us
by a deep glen^ and the shades of evening were fast closing
round us, we left them to be examined by some future travel-
ler. We are surprised that Dr. Cramer should have passed
over so cursorily the topography of Horace's villa, and it»
vicinityi certainly one of the most interesting spots in Italy to
the classical reader. The ruins of the Temple of Yacuna
are not exactly on the site of Rocca Giovane, as the author
says, but at a trifling distance from it; and in a vineyard below
the village Licenxa, they point out some ruins and mosaic
pavenoent said to belong to the farm-bouse of Horace.

To investigate the sites of the ancient towns of Latium,
and the antiquities of Rome itself, would occupy more
space than we can at present afford ; and we shall pass on
to the more southern provinces. There is no part of Italy
which has more frequently been the theme of praise with
ancient writers, than the rich and fertile district of Cam-
pania. The beauty of its climate, and the productive nature
of its soil, called forth their warmest commendation : ^ nihil mol-
lius coelo^ ubi bis floribus vernat ; nihil uberius solo; nihil hos-
pitalius mari/ says Florus; while Pliny calls it, 'Felix ilia
Campania — certamen humanae voluptatis.' Dr. Cramer begins
his description with the river Savo, which separated Cam-
pania in the time of Augustus from Latium, and here he
might have told us that the remains of the bridge built by
Domitian are still to be seen, as also a portion of the magni-
ficent bridge constructed by the same emperor over the Vultur-
nus^ which Statins has eulogized in some very indifferent
poetry. It is wrong to say that.the ancient city oi Vulturnum
was situated at the present Castel di Voltumo ; the real site
was at a spot called Civiti, at a short distance from the
modern castle» We agree with Dr. Cramer in thinking that
Liternum, so celebrated as the town to which Scipio Africanus
retired in voluntary exile, and where he is supposed to have
closed his career, was situated at Torre di Fatria. It is now
only a few straggling huts, where sportsmen leave their horses,
when they come down from Naples to amuse themselves with
shooting quails. The tomb of the illustrious general is pointed
out at a spot called Le Rotte, but we need scarcely add that
there is no appearance of any sepulchral monument. It is a
vaulted chamber, twelve by fifteen feet, plastered with pozzo-
lana mixed with pieces of brick, and is more than half filled
with earth. At the time when we saw it, it was used as a place
for catching porcupines. There were no columbaria, nothings

336 Description of Ancient Italy.

in Tact, to mark that it ever had been a tomb. A large building
has been connected with it, but the remains evidently prove it
to be of the later ages of the empire. At a short distance from
Le Rotte, there are five lofty mounds, rising like towers, which
are called by the inhabitants Torrioni, but it is impossible to
say, from their appearance, what purpose they may have served.
The only other piece of antiquity here is Ponte a Selice, a
bridge which conducted the Via Domitiana across the river
Clanius. The buttresses on both sides are nearly entire, and
chiefly built of brick and rubble work. We made diligent
search for the inscription which Scipio is said to have caused
to be engraved on his tomb, and which gave name to the
modern village,

Ingrata Fatria, ne ossa quidem mea habes —

but we were unable to discover it. Dr. Cramer is mistaken
in supposing that Clanius is now called Lagno only. It has,
in fact, three different appellations ; in the earlier part of its
course, till it reaches Aversa, it is called by the inhabitants
Clanio, then it receives the name of Lagno, and near the lake
we found it to be Fiume di Patria or Litemo.

Proceeding along this flat, uninteresting coast, towards
CumaB, we pass through what was formerly the Sylva Galli-
naria, the noted haunt of robbers and assassins. There are
still a sufficient number of majestic pines to give us some idea
of what it was in former days. Hence, Dr. Cramer tells us, Sex-
tus Pompey was furnished with the fleet with which he after-
wards infested the Mediterranean ; but if the author had re-
ferred to Strabo, he would have found a very different statement
— 'EvTai;0a ra. Xr^ffrripioc ffi/ve JTOQffavro ol Tlo/jurviiov Ss^roc/ vavotqy^fli
xxQ* ov xcei^ov SixsXificv diriffTnssv skeTvos* Now it is needless to
remark that the meaning of this passage is that the captains of
Sextus Pompey established there their • head-quarters on the
land,' for recruiting, provisions, &c. ; in fact they here had
their depdts, at the time when he caused Sicily to revolt (about
40 B.C.) As you approach to Cumae, you observe ruins of
houses and arches, remains probably of the aqueducts, and
close to that ancient city, the Lago di Licola, supposed to
have been formed by Nero, in pursuance of his mad project of
cutting a canal from the Lake Avernus to Ostia, at the mouth
of the Tiber, a distance of upwards of one hundred and forty
miles. We may truly say with Tacitus, * manent vestigia
irritae spei.* The ruins of Cumae are found principally on the
hill, and not at the base, as Dr. Cramer remarks. Every one
is familiar with the cave of the Cumaean sibyl, and the de-

Description of Anden t Italy. 337

scription' of it by Virgil. From all that can be collected, we
would place Cicero's Cumaean villa on the heights between
Cumae and Baise, where ruins are found, rather than fix it^ with
Dr. Cramer, in the vicinity of Misenum. The site of this
latter town the author has omitted to give; we would place it
at CasalucCf and consider the harbour where Pliny the Elder
was stationed at the time of the great eruption of Vesuvius,
(79 A.D.) to be what is now called Mare Motto. Neither
does the author inform us of the site of Bauli, where Nero
received his mother Agrippina, before she fell a victim to his
cruelty. It was situated at the modern village of Sacola, and
we may add that the Lucrine Lake is now called Ztago di S.
FilippOj though no longer celebrated for its oysters. The
lovers of that shell-fish must now cross to the other side, near
Cumse/tothe Lago Fusaro, by some supposed to be the an-
cient Acherusia, and there they will find oysters equal in exqui-
site flavour to those mentioned by Horace and Juvenal. We
confess that we are unable to understand how the lake Avernus
could have been filled with the waters which flowed from Mount
Gaurus. We have seen this portion of the country at all seasons
of the year, and, unless some very great change has taken place,
of which we are not aware, we do not conceive that it was pos-
sible. Dr. Cramer ought to have told us that the ruins of
Cicero's villa, to which he gave the name of Academia, and
where he no doubt composed the dissertations which bear that
title, are now found at a place called Lo Stajo^ at a short
distance from Puteoli. He might also have added that the
Emperor Hadrian, who died at the Temple of Serapis, was
buried in the villa. (Spartian. in Hadrian.)

The position of the tomb of Virgil, at Naples, has long been
a subject of dispute among antiquaries ; it is placed by Donatus
at the distance of two miles from that city on the Via Puteolana,
between the first and second mile- stones. Dr. Cramer seems
to believe that the monument now exhibited as the tomb of
that poet can never have been on the Via Puteolana, if it
traversed the grotto, though he allows it was at no great dis-
tance from it. But the author did not observe, if he ever
examined the spot, that the entrance to the grotto has evidently
at difierent times been lowered to its present level, and there is
every appearance that, in former times, the entrance was much
higher, close to the tomb ; in this way we may relieve him from
an apparent difiiculty.

In correcting Cluverius as to the true site of the ruins of
Pompeii, it is not a little surprising that Dr. Cramer should have
himself committed a blunder more inexcusable than that of
this ancient geographer. Pompeii is not at the distance of

Jan.— April, 1834. Z

888 IfucHption ^fAwAmt liafy.

two miles from the river Samo ; it it not more than htlf a mile,
and about one mile and a half from Sca/aii^ where Cluverias
had imagined it to have been placed. If the author had read
attentively the interesting account given by Pliny the younger of
his uncle's death , he would there have found that he fell a victim
to his ardent thirst for knowledge, not in the villa of his friend
Pomponianus at Stabie, (as Dr. Cramer states,) but on the
shore towards Vesuvius. Near this village there was a hill called
Mens Lactarius, from the excellence of its pastures, which Dr.
Cramer says rises behind the village of Castellamare. It seems,
however, to have been two miles distant, where we now find a
mountain called Monte Lettere^ and a village of the same name.
The little village of Equa^ the iElqua of Silius Italicus, so far from
being ten (ii. 182) miles from Claetellamare, is not more than
three and a half. At the Promontorium Surrentinum, the
author might have added that there are still considerable
remains of the ancient temple of Minerva, and more parti-*
cularly a subterraneous descent to the landing-place, which is
now partly blocked up. Rounding this point, we come upon
three small islands, the celebrated Insulse Sirenusae, now /
Oalti; on one we found the ruins of a tower of the middle
ages, but they were all equally deserted and barren, as in the
time of Strabo. Indeed, in summer, the heat reflected from the
declivity of the lofty mountain S. Angelo is so excessive, that
it would require a greater temptation than they present to
induce any one to inhabit them.

We have now finished our brief examination of the coast of
Campania, and shall proceed to notice a few of the more in-
teresting spots in the interior, before we pass into Samnium.
The position of Suessula is four miles froni Acerra, in the
middle of a wood, which had more resemblance to an
English park than any thing that we saw in Italy. The
spot is called Castellone di Bosco, there having been built
here, during the middle ages, a very strong castle. Here
and there you stumble over the foundations of the ancient
houses, and we observed the fragment of a sepulchral
inscription ; but the inhabitants of Acerra carried off those
best preserved to lay the foundation of a cross, which they
were erecting for their cathedral. Acerra itself is no longer
subject to the inundations of the Clanius, as in the time of
Virgil^ as canals have been cut^ which receive the superfluous
waters; but the purity of the air has not been increased, as
they make use of these canals for steeping flax. The author
has not thought proper to bint at the existence of the cele^
brated amphitheatre of Capua, one of the most perfect
in Italy, but he mentions that th^re were two temples

Description of Ancieht Italjjf\ 339

consecrated to Diana and Jove. The ruins of the former are
found at S. Angela in Forma, about one mile and a half
from S. Maria di Capoa* The pulpit is supported on four
pillars of the purest Mrhite marble^ and the few houses
around it are built of the stones of the ancient temple. The
author properly remarks that the ridge of Tifata> which over-
hangs Capua, was a favourite position of Hannibal; and as a
confirmation of this fact, we may mention that, at a small dis*
IE tance from Sommacco, on a hill called Mtrntagnino, and at a

\t spot called Santa Croce, the camp of Hannibal is still pointed

li out by the inhabitants. On one side it is a perpendicular

\i rock, and on the other you can trace the remains of the en-

t. trenchment, in the form of a half circle. At the highest part

facing the south, there is a small level space, called by the
inhabitants PadigUoned* AnnibaU. The encampment must
have been completely isolated, and could only be approached
on one side. The view from this spot is magnificent, extend-
ing over the whole of the fertile plains of Campania. We
have only room to notice one other spot in the north of this
province : Venafrum, now Venafro^ is well known to the rea-
der of Horace for the excellence of the oil which its territory
produced. The inhabitants still assert that the produce of
their olive trees is as excellent as in former times, but on this
point we cannot pretend to give an opinion. Venafro is situ*
ated very picturesquely on the declivity of a mountain in the
beautiful valley of the Vulturnus ; it exhibits very few ancient
remains.

We have now reached the confines of the country of the
Samnites, one of the bravest and most powerful nations that
Italy produced. It is impossible not to admire the unwearied
constancy with which that people maintained the contest against
the Romans, if not for empire, at least for freedom and inde--
pendence. It was not till they were completely subdued by
Sylla, that Rome could consider herself secure, and it is said
that general declared that Rome could enjoy no rest as long
as a number of Samnites could be collected together. The
nature of the country was well calculated to render its inha-
bitants brave and fearless. It was a pleasant contrast to the
parched plains of Apulia, in the month of July, when we
reached the lofty and wooded mountains of Samnium. The
purity and coolness of its air gave fresh vigour, and at once
convinced us how superior in strength its inhabitants must be
to those who dwell in the low countries. Its ancient topo-
graphy, however, is by no means interesting, and we shall
not, therefore, detain the reader, except to make one or two
remarks. At ^sernia, now hernia^ there are some sepulchral

2 z

340 Description of Ancieni Italy •.

inscriptions and broken pillars, but nothing of sufficient
moment to attract attention. At Bovianum» now Boiano,
which lAvy describes as an opulent and important place, part
of the ancient walls are still to be seen. It is placed at the
foot of the lofty range of mountains, called Motise^ and we
can easily believe, from its situation, that it may be deprived
of the light of the sun during some of the winter months.
It was here that we found one of the sources of the river
Tifernus, to which we before alluded, bursting with great
force from the side of the mountain. In the south of this pro*
vince we find the Furcas Caudinae, the true position of which has
caused much controversy among antiquaries. Dr. Cramer
gives a very fair statement of the whole subject ; we are pre-
pared, however, to dispute the correctness of the opinion which
he advocates, but we cannot now enter on the subject. From
an examination of the ground, we are persuaded that Clu*
verius was right in placing the scene of the disaster in the nar-
row defile beyond S. Agata dei 6oti, in a glen formed by the
rivulet Faietiza, a tributary to the Volturno. At Beneventum,
which remained firmly attached to the Romans during the
whole of the second Punic war^ there is a very magnificent
triumphal arch erected to Trajan, an obelisk of the age of
Domitian, the remains of the theatre, and part of the ancient
bridge across the river Sabatus. Considerably to the south,
on the banks of the Calor, we find the small village Taura*
slum distinguished as the spot where Fyrrhus was totally
defeated by Curius Dentatus, and to which the Romans in
later times removed a considerable body of Ligurians. At
the modem village of Tatirost, there are considerable remains,
and several sepulchral inscriptions, one of them to a person
of the name of Virgilius. In speaking of the position of
Ampsancti Lacus, Dr. Cramer states it is near the village of
Frigento : to be correct, he ought to have said that it is three
miles distant^ and is now known to the inhabitants by the name
of Mefiti, from its sulphureous exhalations. From being igno-
rant of its modern appellation^ we had much difficulty in dis-
covering its position, and had neeurly been baffled, after
travelling upwards of thirty miles to examine it. We ap-
proached it from Taurasi, and many miles before we reached
the spot, the volcanic nature of the soil, and the bareness of
the country, gave us warning that we must be in the vicinity
of this lake, of which Virgil (i£n. vii., 563) gives us so beauti-
ful a description. The noise, however, was by no means of
so tremendous a character as the poet has described ; the
water was thrown up in jets> in several parts to the height
of about four feet; but there was not much sound accom**

Description of Ancient Italy. 841

panying it. The sulphureous exhalation was so strong, that
we were obliged to keep to windward, and on attempting to
descend towards the brink of the lake, which was fifty feet
below us, we soon began to feel the effects, and were happy
to escape beyond its influence'*'.

We have now reached the province of Lucania, to which
we shall attach the district of the Bruttii, and make our re-
marks on both at the same time. It will be most convenient
to run along the western coast to Rheggio^ and then proceed
up as far as Tarentum. Landing at the mouth of the river
Silarus, which still possesses, as formerly, the property of in-
crusting, by means of a calcareous deposit, any pieces of wood
or twigs thrown into it, we ought to find the Portus Alburnus.
There is no appearance^ however, at present^ of any such
haven, nor does it seem possible that the shore should ever
have admitted of its construction. Here also was situated
the Templum Juuonis Argivie, said to have been founded by
Jason and the Argonauts. We tried to discover some re-
mains on the left bank of the Silarns, where Strabo places it,
but we were unsuccessful. At present there is only a small
tower, evidently of no great antiquity. The hills to the
south-east of Psestum were called formerly Petilini Montes,
to which Spartacus retired, after being defeated by Crassus,
and they derived their name, it is said, from a town Petilia.
In his map. Dr. Cramer has quite mistaken the position of
these mountains, and of Mount Stella, by which name they
are now known. Stella is to the west of the river Alento,
and not to the east^ lying so close to the sea^ that it seems at
your feet> and rising to such a height, that, when the weather
is clear, the distant island of Stromboli may be seen dis-
tinctly., On its declivity are the ruins of a castle of the
middle ages, called Castellucio di Stella, and on its summit a
chapel^ and the remains of a monastery to which it belonged,
but we in vain sought for any fragment which should prove
that we were on the site of the ancient Petilia. Velia, which
is said to have been founded by the Phocseans, when they fled
from the armies of Cyrus the Elder, and celebrated in later
times for its school of philosophy, is not at the distance of
three miles, as stated by the author, from the river Heles ;
it is scarcely one mile^ and about one quarter of a mile from
the sea, at the spot now called Castellamare della Bruca
The city stretched along the brow of a hill, and its walls
may be traced here and there for upwards of two miles*
There are a number of sepulchral inscriptions in Greek
characters, scattered in the fields: one ruin which they

* See Journal of the Boyal Geographical Society of LondoD, vol. ii. p. 62.

S42 Deicr^m of Aneimt Italy.

called Caiacambe, IB a vaulted chamber, now half filled
with earth ; on the roof there is an mscription in a circlei
tome letters of which we were able to make out^ but the
greater part was illegible.

Proceeding along the coast till we arrive within two miles
of Cape Palinurus, we reach a tower which the inhabitants
have honoured with the title of Sepolcro di Palinuro ; it is
built of brick, and is evidently of a late age. Though it is
several miles from any village, it is curious that there should
be a fair held here annually. It is well known that a number
of the vessels of Augustus were shipwrecked against this
headland. The inhabitants show a cave, which can only be
entered from the sea^ into which they affirm the bodies of the
sailors were tossed, and in the lapse of ages were petrified by
the nature of the rock. As a proof of the correctness of
their statement^ they point out what they assert to be the
legs and arms of these sailors. It will be at once conjectured
that it is one of those grottoes found in all limestone coun*
tries ; it is filled with magnificent stalactites of various forms,
some of them, no doubt, resembling the limbs of human beings:
but to those who have seen the very extraordinary shapes
which the stalactites assume in the grotto of Adelsberg, and
other similar natural caves, it would not be considered as
worthy of much notice. At the mouth of the Melphes^ there
is said to have been a city called Palinurus ad Melphem : the
ruins found on the hill above this stream are certainly of
the middle ages^ though there may have been a Greek town of
an earlier date on the same site. The ruins of Pyxus or
Buxentum are found on the exact site of PolicastrOj and not
near it, as Dr. Cramer states. In the cathedral, there are
several marble pillars with inscriptions, built into the walls
upside down. The ruins of Scidrus are found along the
north side of a beautiful little bay close to the village of
Sapri. The edifices are evidently of Roman construction,
and on one side a mole has been thrown out into the sea to
form the harbour. Blanda, a small village mentioned by
Livy (xxiv. 20.) is placed by Dr. Cramer at Maratea : the
true site, however, seems to have been nearer the coast,
where some ancient remains are found, and a tower which
they call Torre di Fenere. The position of Laus, too, we
found to be not exactly at the village of Scalea, according
to the author, but half a mile further on in the plain below,
close to the banks of the river of the same name.

Considerably further south, there was a city called Temesa^
or Tempsa, of great antiquity, celebrated for its copper mines,
to which Homer is supposed to refer in the Odyssey. Its

aituatioQ hsku not yet been fully determined. We found» tei^
miles to the north of Amaniea, a tower called Torre di Mesikf
and some appearance of ancient ruins. In the mountains
in the vicinity, the inhabitants state that there is every
appearance of mines, but our time would not permit of
our proceeding to investigate the truth of the statement*
The modem name certainly might very easily be a cor-
ruption of Temesa. Dr. Cramer is wrong in placing
Terina at the modern village of Nocera, which is three milesj
and not five^ from the coast. The ruins of Terina are found
close to the shpre, on a hill called Torre del Pianpt which
has evidently been levelled for the purpose of building. The
proprietor of the ground^ with whom we spent the night at
Koceraj stated that many coins and small earthenware lamps j
were found at this spot. The remains of the aqueduct can
9till be traced. There can» we thinks be no doubt that Yibo
(as Pr. Cramer sayp) was situated at Mgnte Leone ; design*
nated by Cicero ' illustre et nobile municipium.' There was
a festival here in honour of Proserpine^ when the women
assembled to gather flowers^ and twine garlands for their hair ;
in the festival of the Madonna, we found that nearly the
same ceremonies were performed as in ancient times to the
pagan goddess.

We now cross to the opposite coast^ and, as we de-*
scend from the lofty ridge of the Apennines^ we cannot help
being struck with the melancholy and deserted appearance of
this portion of Italy, formerly so populous and well cultivated.
Dr. Cramer seems not to be certain respecting the position
of Locri, one of the most powerful cities of Magna GreBcia,
Now we think that there can be no doubt that it was not
situated at Oerace*, which is evidently a village of the middle
ages, but five miles distant on the coast, where very consider-
able ruins are found. The Temple of Proserpine, one of the
wealthiest and most sacred shrines in Italy, which was
plundered by Dionysius the JSlder, is pointed out by the in-t
habitants^ though they can produce nothing to prove the truth
of their assertion. The walls of the city can be traced on

* Niebuhr, in one of bis notes, denies the truth of Swinburne's account
of the small village of Bova, found about thirty miles to the south of Locri.
As Swinburne states it to be a colony of mod^ Greeks, while Niebuhr ima-
gines it to be a remnant of th^ old Greek nation settled here in the glorious
days of Magna Grsecia, we may take this opportunity of confirming Swinburne's
account. We met at Gerace one of the inhabitants of this village, and he stated,
that the tradition of his countrymen was that they had come ov&r in the time of
Scanderbegy as many Albanians did at the same tipie, whom we find in various
parts of the kingdom of Naples^i We observed also^ that his language was the
exact Romaic dialect with only very slight variations, which would scai'cely
have been Ihe ease if Bwa^ a remnant of ^e Italian Greeks. . '

344 DeicripHan of Ancient Italy.

one side quite distinctly close to the shore, and about half a
mile inland the foundations of two temples or public buildings
are observed where the ground begins to rise gently. Dr.
Cramer is not correct in supposing that Gerave is situated on
the Mons Esopis of Strabo, if Gerace is not Locri. As to
the position of Caulon, we would fix it at a spot called Cala-
monoj about a mile from the sea, and three from Castelvetere^
where many sepulchres have been found containing coins of
the Greek cities. Between this hill and the sea there is an
extensive plain where the memorable overthrow of the Cro-
tontatsB took place, when they were defeated by a force
of ten thousand Locrians. The ruins of Scyllacium are found
nearer to the coast than the modem village of Squillace,
where they are generally placed. About twenty miles from
this town, at a village, Tiriolo, which is equidistant from
both seasy there are numerous Greek coins found, but its
ancient name is unknown. Here too was discovered the cele*
brated tablet, prohibiting the Bacchanalian orgies through-
out Italy, which we saw, if we recollect right, in the
Public Museum at Vienna. There is a lofty mountain
behind it, from which you can distinguish Mount ^tna and
Stromboli when the day is clear. The next point of any
importance along the east coast is the Promontorium Laci-
nium, on which was situated the Temple of Juno, to
whom j£neas presented a brazen vase on his arrival in
Italy. Here Hannibal caused an inscription to be en-
graved, recording the number of his troops and their several
victories and achievements. The ruins are still to be seen
at this promontory, now called Capo di Colonne, Some of
the foundation stones are ten feet in length, and five rows
still remain. Above these appears 'opus reticulatum,' of
which immense masses lie scattered up and down. There is
a large piece of wall running down to the sea about thirty
feet in height. A single Doric column remains, but it is
difficult to imagine how it should have been placed in its pre-
sent position. It is raised like a monument above what ap-
pears to be the ancient base of the Temple, on a pedestal of
four rows of stones, each about the breadth of one foot. The
stones are placed on each other without mortar. The length
of the Temple on the west side, where it is tolerably perfect,
has been about four hundred feet. The side which faces the
point is almost entirely destroyed. There is now a small
chapel to the Madonna del Capo^ whose festival the people
of Cotro7ie celebrate in the month of May, but we could not
discover that there were any particular customs observed.
The land, at the distance of about one mile and a half before

DewripUon of Ancient Italy. 345

you reach the point, as you approach it on the land side,
sinks suddenly to a perrect level. The country through
which you pass before you arrive near the Temple is hilly
and undulating. There are now no groves of aged trees^
nor spacious meadows. It is perfectly bare^ and without
wood as far as the eye can reach.

The city Croto^ now Cotrone, has dwindled to an insigni-»
ficant village^ confined within the walls of what was its an-
cient fortress. There are some inscriptions said to be in the
castle, but as the commander of the forces stationed here was
confined to bed by sickness^ we did not consider the gratifi-*
cation of our curiosity sufficient to justify us in disturbing aa
invalid. It required an order from him to enable us to enter
the precincts of the castle. The ancient city extended a mile
to the north towards the rivulet iEsarus, which is only
worthy of notice as being the scene of some of the most
beautiful bucolics of Theocritus. The valley through which
it flows is at present neither beautiful nor picturesque. In
this vicinity there was another Petilia, not to be confounded
with the town of the same name in Lucania. It sustained a
memorable siege in the second Punic war, when it refused to
follow the example of the other Bruttian cities in joining the
Carthaginians. ^Itaque Hannibali non Petiliam, sed fidei
Petilinse sepulchrum capere contigit^' says Val. Maximus
(vi. 6). Its ruins are found at the small village of Strongolif
where the author places it, about three miles from the
coast on the pinnacle of a rock. There are several sepul-
chral inscriptions in Greek characters, and the inhabitants
point out the ruins of a building which they call the
Temple of Philoctetes, by whom the city is said to have
been founded. We observed several pillars of beautiful
cipoUino marble lying before the. cathedral, and one of
the inhabitants brought us a curious silver medallion which
had been discovered here. On one side is a warrior offering
up incense on an altar, with a galley in the distance, and the
following inscription : EXSOLVVNT GRATES CAESAR
ET IMPERIVM . On the reverse is a warrior seated at the
side of a stream, with some buildings at a short distance, with
this inscription: HAC TANDEM FESSVS MARS AD
THERMAS ABLVISSEM. We do not pretend to be in
the least acquainted with the subject of ancient medals^ but
if this be rare, it must be very valuable, as it is in a perfect
state of preservation. It looks, in fact, as if it had only just
issued from the mint.

The site of the luxurious Sybaris was long a subject of dis«
pute among antiquaries, nor indeed is it yet clearly made out*

846 DucHpthn ttfAweknt Itafy.

Sybarit is nid to have been destroyed by the inbabttants of
CrotOD turning the waters of the Sybaris into the spot where
it stood. The Crathis and Sybaris^ which once flowed into
the sea by separate channels, now unite at the distance of
about one mile from the sea* Being on the right bank of
the Crathis/we were anxious to cross, that we might proceed
down to the junction^ where the facts stated by Strabo (vi.
263) have led antiquarians to look for the ruins of Sybaris.
The Crathis is here confined within narrow banks^ and as the
soil is soft, it has worn for itself a very deep channel. We
were obliged to ascend a couple of miles before we reached a
ford» and we had then to penetrate through thick brushwood
to reach the point of junctioUt which is called Abbotiatura.
We did not discover a fragment of antiquity in any part of
the Piano di Gaddella, as it is called, though we were after-*
wards told that, when the water in the river is low, they
observe at the bottom the remams of ancient walls. We
cannot, however, vouch for the truth of this statement.
The ruins of Tburii are found at a spot called 2\<rtone,
about two miles from Terra Nuova, and four from the junc-
tion of the two rivers. Coins and vases have been discovered,
more particularly in the field called Siragoleot and there is
now to be seen the fragment of a marble pillar. The ruins
of Cossa, before whose walls Milo fell, are found at Citrita,
three miles from the modern village of Cassano. Proceeding
along the coast, we reach the river Siris, now Sinno, on the
banks of which it is said by the inhabitants that the people
of Heraclea in ancient times had formed their gardens. This
idea has arisen from the variety of plants and flowers which
are every where found in its vicinity. The beauty of the
spot struck us forcibly, and this tradition we afterwards dis^
covered to prevail among the inhabitants. We attempted to
penetrate to the mouth of the river where the town Siris, said
to be the port of Heraclea, must have stood ; but the thick-^
ness of the brushwood, and the marshy nature of the ground
as we descended the banks> compelled us to return. Heraclea,
remarkable as being the seat of the general council of Greek
states, is said by the author to have been placed at Policoro,
but more correctly, at the distance of about one mile from
this miserable village, where a few fragments are seen of
this celebrated city.

We cannot now proceed to an examination of the province
of Apulia, and we have perhaps already extended this article
to too great a length, but the interesting nature of the subject
must be our excuse. Till something better appears on the
topography of ancient Italy^ we must be satisfied with Dr.

Dwcription of Andmt Jiaijf^ 847

Cmmer't work^ which we cannot however help regretting
should not have been compiled with more care and attention.
Its chief merit is the collection of passages from classical
authors to illustrate the history and antiquities of the ancient
cities ; but the references are not by any means to be de-
pended upon. We have collected upwards of forty mistakes
on this head alone in the first volume, and of course we do
not pretend to have exhausted the subject *•

ELEMENTARY WORKS BY M. QUETELET.

Positions de Physique. Par A. Quetelet. En trois Volumes.
Bruxelles, 1827.

Physique Populaire. J)e h Chahur. Par A, Quetelet,
Bruxelles, 1832.

Astronomic Elementaire. Par A. Quetelet* Paris, 1826.

Wb have already noticed the little treatise on the theory of
probabilities, by M. Quetelet. The second work in our title
IS in continuation of a series of elementary works on physics ;
and the first is a general outline of the results or natural
philosophy, comprising only enunciations of facts and laws.
The third is a popular explanation of the principal points of
astronomy. We shall, in few words, describe, rather than
review, these three treatises.

Our language does not abound in works of which the object
is simply to state results, without reasoning or illustration.
If we except Playfair's Outlines of Natural Philosophy, which,
most excellent as it is, is now of too old a date to represent
the present state of science^ and is moreover too mathematical
for the general reader, we know of no work of authority
which confines itself to the object above mentioned. This
is to be regretted, and perhaps rather to be wondered at,
because such a work, well executed, would be as useful to
the discoverer in his Closet or laboratory, as to the student
in the lecture-room. The latest and most correct numerical
determinations, which the discoverer would be glad to see
collected in a small space, would not be in any way disadvan-*

* We have not indaded the ezamlnation of Dr. Cramer*8 map in our
notice of hU detcrfption, and we subjoin this note in order to prevent any
reader from suppoeing tliat our general ■Uenoe aa te tbe map is to be taken as
indicating our ignorance of the errors which it may contain. Without enter*
Ing into a particular examination of it, we cannot fairly pronounce an
opmion here. We have, however^ examined It oarefnUy aa to many parts of
the coaat-line, and aa to maiiy sstromMiiieal posittoni^ and we are <tf opiojan
that, as a pnysical map of Italy, it is very incorrect.

348 Elimeniary Works by M. QueleleU

tageous to the 'student. The facts might be stated in a shape
which would be convenient for the former^ and useful infer*
mation for the latter ; and to such a form the treatise of M.
Quetclet approaches^ with this limitation only, that it seems
rather to have been intended for the student than the expexi*
menter, though the precision with which numerical results are
given is well adapted, so far as thev go, for the latter.

This treatise embraces the whole course of experimental
philosophy, with the exception of astronomy. The defect
arises probably from the continental practice of distinguishing
between astronomy and what they term ' general physics/
It would certainly be advantageous to supply the omission
by another vohmie : for there is no part of science in which
the elementary books are so ill arranged as astronomy, or
which so much needs such a short dictionary as is here
supplied for general statics and dynamics, acoustics, electri-
city, magnetism, and optics. We hope to see a new edition
of this work ; we should say, many successive editions ; both
to supply what is now wanting, and also to keep pace with
the growth of knowledge. As the state of science advances,
such a work soon becomes insufficient : new discoveries are
made every day 3 and it is surprising how slowly they find
their way into general circulation. One or two works,
executed as is the one before us, and brought into such
repute as would render frequent editions necessary, would
produce much reading on these subjects.

The ^ Positions de Physique* is in three small 18mo
volumes, of about two hundred pages each. Our object in
mentioning it is to bring the fact of its existence to the know*
ledge of those who are curious about natural phenomena,
in which definition we should be glad to count all our
readers. We are convinced that any one who buys it on our
recommendation, will have reason to thank us for a very large
accession to his power of getting at the actual state of know*
ledge on any of the subjects therein contained.

The second treatise on our list, on the theory of heat, is as
like the one on probability, reviewed ii> a former Number, as it
can be, allowance being made for the difference of the subject*
It is an I8mo volume of two hundred pages, containing only
the most elementary results, stated in a very simple manner.
Nevertheless it would give a valuable lesson to the unob-
servant mind : it could not fail to show how many striking
facts lie in the reach of every one, totally unobserved, or at
least unthought of, unarranged, and unremembered. What
we have said in praise on the treatise on probabilities will
also apply to the one of which we are now speaking.

Elemmtary JVorks by M. Quetelet. 349

The treatise on astronomy is a duodecimo volume of
three hundred pages. It goes more into detail than the pre-
ceding, and has the advantage (as appears in every chapter)
of having been written by a person thoroughly acquainted
with the present state of practical astronomy. M. Quetelet is
himself at the head of a public observatory : and though we
believe he was not in such a position when this work was
written, it is most evident that he then knew the heavens
otherwise than through books. When we recollect what sort
of instruction in such matters was the only one attainable in
our school days^ and see that the silly quotations from all
manner of poets have given way to numerical explanations of
phenomena, and that the suppression of difficulties for the
purpose of rendering explanation more easy has been super-
seded by successful attempts to meet and overcome them
fairly, both in this treatise and others^ we cannot help feeling
that, much as is yet to do, much has been done. The false
attempts to excite astonishment have disappeared^ or rather,
we should say, the admiration of the student is directed to
the order of the system, and to the simplicity and general laws
which govern the motions of its parts, not to the large round
numbers which are necessary to measure celestial distances,
when we use our own little mile as the unit. We remember
when a boy's book on astronomy gave about as much notion
of the subject^ as might be gained of zoology from the harangue
of the red-coated savant who exhibited wild beasts, both de-
scriptions being of the same character.

We should like to see a good English translation of
this work. It might be put into the hands of a young
person previously to reading the work of Sir John
Herschel. Perhaps a very few pages in explanation of the
most usual geometrical terms would be a desirable jprelimi-
nary. But unless the work met with a translator who knew
how to preserve the clearness of expression of the original,
which is a talent of the author, and a peculiar feature of the
language in which he writes, we should decidedly recommend
instructors to prefer the French work in all cases where it
could be used.

In so short a sketch we have no opportunity to criticise
details. We can only, therefore, in recommending all three
works, express generally our sense of the service M. Quetelet
has rendered, and is likely to render, to the diffusion of scien-
tific knowledge, by employing the attainments which have
made him so well known to philosophers, in the instruction
of the merest beginner.

MISCELLANEOUS.

FOREIGN-
FRANCE.

Education in Parif.— In No¥ember last* 8300 youngs men were
entered as attending the * Ecole de Droits* in Paris* and 2101 as
attending^ the * Ecde de Midecine.* At that time the number of
pupils in the Polytechnic School, was 342, and in the Normal
SchooU 60. The number of youth in a course of education in the
fi?e Royal Colleges, was as follows: — In the college * Louis le
Grand/ 502 boarders, and 422 externes or day-scholars ; in that of
* Henri le Quatre,' 860 boarders, and 380 extemes ; in that of < St.
Louis,* 258 boarders, and 500 extemes ; in the college * Bourbon,'
850 extemes ; and in that of * Charlemagne,' 1000 externes. The two
colleges, * Stanislaus,' and ^ Rolling had 800 pupils each. It would
appear from the returns, that there are 10,670 young men and boys
in Paris, who are cultiyating the higher branches of education.
The number of establishments for education in the French capital
amounts to 596 ; namelVf 35 academical institutions of a superior
class, 63 boarding schools for males, 117 for females, and 381 other
schools.

University Bttdgef.— The * Bulletin des Lois/ of the 4th of
December last, contained an ordinance, fixing the budget for the
special funds attached to the University of France. The receipts
are estimated in this document at 3,580,655 francs, (about
143,2202.) and the disbursements at 3,575,491 francs, (about
143,010/.). In January, however, the ' Moniteur,' published a re-
port from Ouizot, the minister of public instruction, submitting a
plan for a partial reform of the system. From this we learn, that
the university dues, (to which every academical institution or
seminary in France, contributes its quota,) are in future to be col*
lected by agents appointed by the French Treasury ; that the budget
of which we have just spoken is to be suppressed, and that the
income and expenditure are to be incorporated with the general
budget of the state. With regard to its financial concerns, the
university will, therefore, be placed on the same footing with every
other public service ; but it will continue to retain an independent
control over every other branch of its constitution.

Prison Discipline. — * Every species of labour, even such as the
law renders compulsory, ought to be remunerated ; and the wages

F&rdgn/ . 351

which a prisoner earnfi, should be bo dealt with, as to form a re«-
serve for him, when he once more becomes a free ag^ent. It is cruel,
and subversive of the legitimate objects of all criminal law^ to send
him back naked into the wide world ; for he returns into it, bearing*
already punishment enough about his mind and person, ^the stain
of a bad character. In this respect, the discipline adopted in the
female prison at Clermont recommends itself to general adoption.
I visited the work*rooms at a time when the prisoners were all at their
tasks ; these rooms are in fact three immense halls, kept in a most
perfect state of cleanliness. The prisoners are distributed, in each
of these rooms, into parties of half a dozen each ; and I found them
seated round a table, under the superintendence of one of their own
class, who had raised herself by her good conduct to the situation of
what is called a PrMte. They are only allowed to speak in an
undertone of voice ; and the rule is so rigidly observed, that no two
hundred individuals ever made so little noise. There are three
respectable females attached to the establishment, whose duty it is
to superintend, direct, and instruct the. prisoners in tfieir work ; and
they mix up so much kindness and encouragement in the discharge
of this duty, as to acquire a high degree of moral influence over
the unfortunate creatures. Owing to this judicious treatment, the
latter speedily acquire more than ordinary skill in their several
occupations. There is no shawl more beautifully embroidered,
no gloves better sewn, nor any tresses more perfectly finished
for sale in England, than those which come out of the hands of a
female prisoner at Clermont The wages which they receive are
determined by their skill ; the maximum amounts to tenpence a
day, and the produce, whatever it may be, is divided into three
parts. One portion is retained by the establishment, towards de-
fraying its expenses ; another is laid aside for the future use of the
prisoners ; and the third is paid them punctually at the end of the
week, and applied by them in procuring some solace ; most commonly
it is expended at a canteen, where they celebrate la noce as they
term it — the simple recreation of purchasing and consuming fruit,
eggs, salad, and wine. The prefect of the department generally
pays a visit to the prison every quarter, or otherwise sanctions the
table of prices at which the various articles are to be sold. The
prisoners are allowed two meals a day; they have an ample
ration of soup in the morning, and a similar quantity at four in the
aflernoon, together with vegetables ; on Sundays, they are allowed
a richer sort of soup, and some beef. The diet is evidently whole-
some, for the Infirmary is never filled. The sleeping-rooms are
spacious and very clean ; all the bedsteads are of iron, and pro-
vided with a mattress and slight coverlid. I observed some of
them with a pillow, and was told, that this comfort is allowed to
such of the prisoners as are remarkable for good conduct; but
the instant they relapse, they are deprived of it. A light is kept
burning in the rooms throughout the night, and they are subjected
to the severest superintendence* The guard on duty consists of
twelve mi9n armed with swords only; but these are more than

352 M!Ucellaneou$*

adequate to preserve order ia the prison, as it is rarely disturbed by
any tumult. Those who do not conduct themselves properly are
separated from the rest, closely confined, or deprived of such re-
wards as their former good conduct may have procured them ; but
those who conduct themselves in a satisfactory manner are remune-
rated by an advance of waji^s, the comfort of a pillow at night, or ele-
vation to the office ofPrevSle, The last is an important object, as those
who have attained it form the class of prisoners out of whom the se-
lection for the exercise of the royal demency is made. There appears
to me' but one fault to be found with the management of this
prison ; and that is, the want of classification according to age,
deportment, offences, or duration of punishment. The division of
the prison into the three spacious halls Vhich I have mentioned,
offers peculiar facilities for carrying this great improvement into ef-
fect I should add, in justice to the worthy ecclesiastic who attends
the prison, that the moral and religious instruction of its inmates
is most carefully and successfully attended to.' — C. A.

Elementary Education. — ^At the close of last year, elementary
instruction was given to 1,935,000 children ; which shows the pro-
portion of one in every 17 inhabitants, for the whole kingdom. At
the same period, the total number of schools was 42,092, including
11,139 private establishments. The amount expended on the na-
tional schools (or Ecoles Primaires) was 406,500/., of which 16,153/.
were defrayed by the state, 307,720/. by the districts in which the
schools are established, and 82,627/. by their respective departments.

Courses of Lectures, Paris. — ^The public lectures, now in course of
delivery at the * College de . France,' commenced on the 3rd of
February, and are as follows : —

!• Astronomy, by Binet; three lectures in the week.

2. Mathematics, Lacroix; two ditto.

3. Physics, Biot or Libri ; three ditto.

4. Medicine, Magendie ; two ditto.
b. Chemistry, Thenard ; ditto.

6. Natural History, Beaumont ; three diito.

7. National and International Law, De Porte.ls; one ditto.

8. History and Morals, Letronne; one ditto.

9. Hebrew Language, &c., Quartremere; two ditto.

10. Arabic, Caunn de Perceval ; ditto.

11. Persian, Silvestre de Sacy ; three ditto.

12. Turkish, Desgranges; ditto.

13. Chinese and Tartar dialects, Jt^/ien; ditto.

14. Sanskrit, Bwrnoi// (the younger) ; ditto.

15. Greek, Boissonade ; two ditto.

16. Greek and Roman Philosophy, Jouffroy ; ditto.

17. Latin Poetry, Tissot; ditto.

18. French Literature, Ampere (the younger) ; ditto.

19. Political Economy, Rossi ; three ditto.

20. Comparative History of Legislation, ierwimier; two ditto.

Foreign. 353

SWITZERLAND.

Freiburg. — The whole canton is poverty-stricken, with the soli-
tary exception of the district of Murtenersee, where Protestants
abound, and industry is active. The town itself has but few re-
sources, besides the Jesuits^ College and its schools ; and there
is no doubt but the Jesuits and their liberal establishments attract
hundreds of young people to the place. In fact, the worthy magis-
trate who wields the executive in this petty sovereignty tells every
one with perfect naivete, that public duty makes it incumbent
upon him to keep on good terms with the Jesuits, under any cir-
cumstances, lest he should endanger an important source of liveli-
hood to the inhabitants. It seems never to have occurred to these
little republican potentates, that seminaries, conducted as those of
the Jesuits are, would prosper in any hands, whether lay or eccle-
siastic; for none can say that they spare either pains or money.
The whole canton does not contain a single school which is not
conducted by Jesuits, or under their direction ; first comes the college
for educating foreigners, next the Gymnasium, and then the ele-
mentary schools. Nay, even the female seminaries are under the
superintendence of Jesuit sisters, who are subject to the jurisdiction
of the provincial, and regulate every proceeding by his directions.
But I must do these instructors justice ; none can excel them in
the practical management of their establishments. It would be
difficult to find a single institution in Europe which can compare
with their * college for strangers' in this town; the building itself
is on a princely scale, and supplied with every thing which a parent
can require in the shape of hails, museums, books, a riding school,
gymnastic ground, and places of recreation ; the whole under the
control of a rector and inspector^ assisted by upwards of thirty pro-
fessors, who are entrusted with the several departments of divinity,
history, philosophy, ancient and modern languages, the mathematics,
music, and drawing. The names' of the students designed for the
clerical profession are posted up on large tablets against the walls.
At the tim« of my visit, the bulk of the pupils were holiday-making,
and most of them on their travels : one troop was in Germany, a
second in Italy, and a third in Switzerland ; each with a Jesuit in
lay attire at its head. The younger members of the establishment
either spend a merry season within the precincts, or pass the holi-
days at a neighbouring seat belonging to the college. Such are the
advantages which the Jesuits hold out to parents for the trivial con-
sideration of twenty or thirty pounds per annum. (Extract from a
Letter.)

Education in GenercU, — In this respect the two and twenty can*
tons composing the Swiss Confederation may be divided into three
classes. The Jirst comprises the cantons of Zurich, Bern, Basle,
Schaffhausen, Argovia, Vaud, Neufch^tel, and Geneva ; the number
of their inhabitants is 1,076,000, or fifty-four per cent, of the entire

Jan.— April, 1834. 2 A

354 Miteellaneous.

population of Switzerland ; the achools are attended by one indi-
vidual in every nine souls, and are in a flourishing state. The
second class, embracing those parts of Switzerland which occupy an
intermediate rank with respect to education, comprehends Luzern,
Zug, Freiburg, Soleure, Appenzell (Ausser-Rhoden), Glarus, St.|Gall,
and Thurgau ; these contain 560,000 inhabitants, or nearly twenty-
nine per cent, of the entire population ; and their schools are at-
tended by one individual in every twelve. The third class, under
which those cantons may be ranked, where the state of education is
anything but satisfactory, includes Schwyz, Unterwalden, Appenzell
(Inner-Rhoden), the Grisons, Tessino, and the Valais ; these contaia
342,000 inhabitants, or seventeen per cent, of the entire population
of the confederacy, and the number of individuals attending the
schools does not exceed one in every twenty.

Tessino. — The law which regulates public instruction in this
canton enacts, that there shall be a school in every parish, in which
reading, writing, and, at least, the first principles of arithmetic shall
be taught ; that it shall be obligatory on all parents, trustees, and
guardians, to send their children and wards to school ; that the con-
duct of the schools shall be vested in ministers, chaplains, or other
competent persons of unblemished character ; and that the parish-
boards shall be empowered to inflict penalties upon such parties as
do not send their children or wards to school. The motives assigned
for the passing of this law reflect much credit on the discernment
of its framers. They are to the following brief effect : * The happi-
ness and well being of every free state which is established on sound
principles, emanate from the wisdom of its institutions, and the diffu-
sion of good education ; for, on the one hand, everything worthy of
human nature may be expected from a people whose minds are
properly moulded, whilst, on the other, ignorance is the avowed
parent of every vice, and the fertile source of disorder, both in the
state and the individual.' We lament to add, that the salutary
enactments, to which these enlightened sentiments form the preamble,
were allowed to remain inoperative for four and twenty years. They
date as far back as the 4th of June, 1804.

Basle. — ' Our university has ceased to exist. It has been de-
cided by the umpire appointed, as the referees named by the two
cantons (Basle-town and Basle- champaign) could not agree upon
their award, that the pecuniary resources of the university, con-
sisting principally of bequests, and amounting to about 600,000
Swiss francs (40,000/.), should be divided between each canton,
in proportion to the number of its inhabitants. Dr. Keller of
Zurich is the individual to whom Switzerland is indebted for this
extraordinary decision ; there is not a man of feeling or real pa-
triotism throughout the confederacy, who will not cry shame upon
his award. We are to retain nine twenty-fifths of the property,
and Basle-champaign the other sixteen. The church and school
endowments are to be split also into nearly similar proportions/

Foreign. 355

GERMANY.

Early Years of F. A. Wolf, — This celebrated scholar was the
son of a schoolmaster and organist 'in the village of Hainrode,
within a short distance of Nordhausen ; he was born on the 15th of
February, 1759. His father, who was in narrow circumstances,
never extended his views with regard to the youth's education beyond
the inculcating of half-a-dozen sound maxims, which were calculated
to make him a cheerful and contented member of society ; but his
mother, though a thrifty housewife, possessed a mind of more as-
piring cast. In his earlier years he knew nothing but what was
carefully taught him by this worthy pair ; the father, from mend-
ing the son's pens, an office at which he was an adept, without
initiating his pupil in the mystery, effectually marred his penman-
ship for afler-life. Young Wolf learned music ; but to no purpose.
At the age of six, his parents took him to Nordhausen and placed
him in the gymnasium, where he was grounded in the classics : by
the time he had reached eleven years of age, his mind was made
up to pursue a learned career, but, as the school declined afler the
death of its then master, he was left without any competent teachers
but his books and his industry. One Frankenstein, a music-mas-
ter, became his instructor in modern languages. Nothing could damp
the ardour of his thirst for knowledge ; not even the injury which
his health received from intense study. He used to revert, in
after years, not without a shudder, to the physical pains under which
it was prosecuted ; whole nights of freezing vigils spent in an apart-
ment without a fire, with feet immersed in a tub of cold water, and
one eye, that was wearied, bound up, whilst the other was kept
hard at work. He retained whatever he read ; nay, it was cur-
rently affirmed at Nordhausen, that he knew the whole Greek Lexi-
con by heart. He added volume to volume as rapidly as his means
allowed, and ceased to attend school ; for he soon found that he
could teach more than was taught. In 1777, he went to Got-
tingen with a Nordhausen exhibition in his purse : and attended
Heyne, who was too much busied with other matters to pay
much attention to the young philologist. The library of that uni-
versity, to which he easily obtained access, became almost his
home; for Heyne's indifierence to him, and perchance his own
acquirements, had sickened him of public lecturing. ' I can make
nothing of the man's praelections,' Wolf would say ; and off he •
started for his favourite haunt, to the neglect even of the Phi-
lological Seminary, whose threshold he never crossed. So perse-
vering a course of reading as Wolf now entered upon, is scarcely
to be paralleled ; by the end of the year he had turned over the
leaves of between seven and eight hundred volumes ; but the exer-
tion had well nigh been fatal, and he was compelled to return home
for a time, in order to recruit. In the meanwhile, Heyne, by whom
his extraordinary application and acquirements had not been un-
noticed, so highly appreciated both, that, at the end of his second
year's course at Gdttingen, he procured him the appointment of

2A2

356 Mtscellaneous,

joint-master of the school for educatingr teachers at Ilfeld, where
he entered upon his public career at the age of twenty. The
youns^est scholar in the Pedatrogium was at once installed one of
its heads. (From Korle's Life and Studies ofF. A, }Folf, 1833.)

Leipzig : the Book Trade. — At the be^nning of the present
year there were 23 printing establishments in this town, which
employed 170 hand-presses, and four steam-presses ; together with
648 compositors and printers. The quantity of paper annually
consumed amounts to 10,740 bales, more or less, which, taken at an
average of 25 dollars each, may be valued at 268,500 dollars*
(about i^39,000). The average weight of the publications exported
from Leipzig, for each of the last few years, has been 30,000. cwts.,
and the returns of such publications have weighed, on a yearly
average, 8000 cwts.; the absolute quantity sold has, therefore,
averaged 22,000 cwts. The net value of a cwt. may be estimated
at 145 dollars, whence the yearly circulation of books printed
in this town will probably amount to 3,190,000 dollars, or about
^^465,000.

BAVARIA.

Munich. — (26^A January.) — ^The Bavarian government is still as
busily engaged as ever in re-considering and re-modelling the
system of education to be adopted in the public seminaries ; and it
is somewhat remarkable, that the plan which has been carried
is founded upon the former system of the years 1803 and 1808,
such as it was laid down by the minister, M ontgelas, in Napoleon's
time. Thiersch's plan, which was promulged in 1830, and created
much noise in its day, has been altogether laid on the shelf. Ac-
cording to the new scheme, none but portions of the classics are to
be placed in the hands of youth.

During the past year, the university was attended by 1592
students, including 60 alumni (students enjoying a government
stipend), and 175 youths from foreign parts. They entered to the
following classes respectively: philosophy, 316; jurisprudence,
469 ; divinity, 244 ; medicine, 378 ; philology, 34 ; science of politics,
&c., 26 ; pharmacy, 64 ; architecture, 26 ; and forest- economy, 35.
They consisted of 1339 Catholics, 212 Protestants, 10 Greeks, and
31 Jews. Three hundred of them (including 60 alumni of the
crown) enjoyed public stipends, and 25 were wholly or partially
supported by the liberality of private individuals. There are 33
professors who lecture on various branches of philosophy ; but only
7 on divinity.

SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH.

Jena. — ^The number of youths studying here last summer was 535 »

* There appears to be some error in this calcalation ; for it reduces the value
of a bale of printing paper to less than £3. \3s. Now, the ordinary paper used
for printing in Germany is, we believe, worth from Vis, to 14f. a ream ; so
that the assumed contents of a bale, as here taken, cannot be more than six
reams at the utmost ; which is much below the actual contents.

Foreign. 35/

nearly one half of them (257) followed the theological courses.
Their conduct is stated to have been unexceptionably good ; and
the recent arrests are alleged to have originated in offences connected
with excesses of a former period. During the present (winter)
session, the numbers have declined to 485, of whom 220 are stu-
dents in divinity.

BADEN.

Freiburg. — ^At the close of last summer there were 484 students at
this university; of whom 175 were entered to the theological
courses ; 79 to the law ; 133 to the medical, surgical^ and pharma-
ceutical ; and 97 to the philosophical : — 409 of them were natives of
the Grand-Duchy, and 75 were from other parts of Germany, &c.

WURTEMBERG.

Popular Feeling with respect to Education, — * Whilst at Goppingen/
says Menzel, ' and sitting at the table d'h6te, I was greatly struck
with the sight of a lank elderly personage, whose look seemed as if
his heart were ready to burst with joy ; though, to judge from the
hard furrows of his solemn academic countenance, the man must
have been dead to every pleasurable emotion for the last fifty years.
My worthy neighbour did not conceal the cause of his delight from
me ; his son had got happily through the examination for which he
had been preparing him from his very childhood ; and he confessed
to me, that he was now, for the second time in his life, in perfect good
humour with the world ; the first occasion was, the passing his own
examination without mishap; but during the long and tedious
interval of twenty years, which had rolled over his head before
that great event, and the next twenty, which elapsed between his
own and his son's examination, he had lived a life of incessant
torture from dread of the ordeal ; and this torture, I must confess,
was imperishably recorded in the deep wrinkles of his haggard
features. The incident recalled to my mind what Paulus says on
the subject of the '* Seer of Prevorst." " The repeated assertion of this
seer," he observes, ** that there is an abundance of teaching and learn-
ing in the intermediate state of existence, lead me to recognise her,
and with no little pleasure, as a genuine fellow-countrywoman from
the Wurtemberg soil. It redounds indeed highly to the credit of that
country, that it laid the foundation of excellent methods of scholastic
instruction from the very dawn of the Reformation. And I should
know the seer to be Wiirtemberg-born, were it evidenced by no
other circumstance, than that she cannot form an idea of a future
world, independent of the existence of a school, with pupils num-
berless, both male and female." — No stronger corroboration of this
conjecture can be instanced than what may be found in the * Swabian
Mercury' of the 3rd August, 1831. It is literally to the following
effect — ** On the 26th of July, God removed our beloved N. N., a
pupil in the seminary for teachers at Esslingen, to the care of his
heavenly academy in higher regions ;" — or, turn to the same paper of
the 19th September : " Frederica, the youngest of our dear children,

d58 Mi8ceUa»t0(nii.

has been called away by Jeans, the children's friend, to TeceiTe ft
heavenly education." And of a truth, the spirit which characterizes
Wfirtemberg^ is not the Iotc of enjoyment, bat a determined
loTe of labour. The stranger looks with perfect astonishment on
the husbandman's weariless industry in the field ; on human forms
hardened and not unfrequently attenuated by labour; on aged
creatures, already bending under exhausted powers, yet bearing
their ponderous loads across the field ; and unfledged striplings,
whom habit has accustomed to carry an almost equal burden. Nor
will he feel less astonished at the activity of the townsmen,
the total absence of street-loungers and mere idlers, the modest
sobriety of the Sabbath recreations, and the comparative solitude of
public places of amusement But in no comer of Wiirtemberg
will you meet with a trace of the dolce-far^niente and noisy mirth
which are indigenous to the Rhine, Franconia, and Bavaria. Still
wider separated is the serious, well-behaved, and temperate Wurtem-
berger from the easy, jocund, enjoyment- seeking Austrian. This
earnestness of character is equally observable in the higher circles
and amongst men of teaming. Its profound thinkers, sterling poets
and men of solid acquirements will render the name of Swabia
eternal ; but your belles-lettres ephemerae, that flit about elsewhere
by whole swarms at a time, are quite unknown along the banks of
the Neckar.* — (Notes on a Journey to Austria.)

Tubingen. — ^The number of students here has for some time past
been gradually decreasing with each successive session. Last
winter they amounted to 824; in the summer half-year they declined
to 822 ; and at present they are reduced to 756. Many of them,
however, who had been ordered away by government, have now
been permitted to resume their studies.

AUSTRIA.

Lemberg. — This university was attended last year by 1291 stu«
dents. At the present day it consists of three faculties ; namely,
philosophy, law, and divinity. As every student who is desirous
of entering either of the last two faculties is required to have com-
pleted his two years' course in philosophy, no less than 499 students
attended the philosophy lectures last year : among them were 177
Poles, 200 Russians, and 69 Germans. The four years' course in
law and the science of administration (Administrations-Urssenschail),
was followed by 242 students, amongst whom were 117 Poles, 23
Russians, and 92 Germans ; and the course in divinity, which ex-
tends over a similar period of years, by 485, of whom 143 were
Poles, 320 Russians, and 9 Germans. No other medical science
is taught but what is comprised in a two years' course of * medico-
surgery,' for which there were but 65 pupils enrolled last year, and
of these 41 were Jews, 12 Poles, and 10 Germans ; those who may
be ambitious of a degree are obliged to go to Vienna, where there
are stipends for students of limited means who are natives of Galida.
There is no scientific journal in all Poland of higher value than

Foreign,

359

the ' Czasopismo Naukowe od Zakiadu Norodowego Ossolinskich
Wydane/ which is published by the Ossolinski Institute in this
town. Those who are engaged in historical pursuits will derive
much information from the extracts given from Ossolinski's work
on * The Earliest Records of the Slavonians/ which is about to
appear, and Francis Starczynski's * History of the Age of Sigis-
mund the Third.'

RUSSIA.

Dorp AT. — The number of students at this university, in September
last, was 577 ; namely, 219 Livonians, 117 Courlanders, 85 Es-
thonians, 141 native Russians from other parts of the empire, and
15 foreigners. They matriculated as follows : 52 in theology, 47
in jurisprudence, 302 in medicine, and 176 in philosophy. There
IS one feature in this university which no other establishment of the
kind in Russia possesses; the choice of studies is left to the
student himself. It has its four faculties ; but in selecting and
matriculating in any one of them, it is not compulsory on the
student to follow any particular course of study. Unfortunately
those from whom the country may reasonably expect greater
acquirements — we mean young men intended for official sta«
lions — are not allowed to avail themselves of the advantages which
are here afforded, but are tied down to the very limited range of
instruction allowed in the Lyceums, which have been established
in various parts of Russia for their exclusive use.

Ruman Literature, — Some idea of the literary labours of the
Russians may be gathered from an analysis of the contents of a
single library in St, Petersburg, which is wholly confined to publi-
cations in the Russian language. They range under the subsequent
heads : —

Belles Lettres and Eloquence . . . 4250

History

• i

t t

1225

Divinity and Ecclesiastical Subjects

. 1081

Philology

678

Languages and Philosophy

/ 616

Jurisprudence

548

Pure Mathematics .

. 519

Medicine

452

Geography

, 405

Politics

292

Natural History

239

Rural, &c. Economy

219

Technology .

132

Fine Arts

117

Periodical works extinct

. 118

existing

J 151

The total number of works of any note would, therefore, appear to
be 10,924. . We should add, that the enumeration was made in

1828.

860 JUiscelianews,

Private ScAoob.— -A recent ukase prohibits the future opening; of
private schools, either for boys or G^irls, in St. Fetersburjs; or Mos-
cow, whether by natives or foreigners; nor will permission be
given to establish such schools in other towns, except in cases of
absolute necessity. Every master and mistress of a private semi-
nary which may be opened hereafler must be a native-born Rus-
sian subject ; but this regulation is not to affect such establishments
as legally exist at the present moment.

New Organization of the Univernty ai Kiow, — ^The statutes for
the extension and future conduct of the university of St. Wladimir,
which has been grafled upon the * Academia Orthodoxa/ or * A.
Kiovo-Mohileana,' were sanctioned by the emperor on the 25th of
December last, and are to remain in force for the next four years ;
and an ukase of the same date enjoins the minister of public in-
struction to open it with the least delay possible, and to begin with
such courses as are most urgently required. Four years are the
term assigned for the regular course of study, and the students in
law are to take the new code (described in one of our former Num-
bers) as their class-book. The professional establishment is to
consist of nineteen ordinary professors, six adjuncts, and four lec-
turers, independently of a professor of the orthodox Greek and ano-
ther of Roman Catholic divinity. The several courses of lectures
are to be delivered in Russian ; but Polish, French, German, and
Italian will be allowed to be taught. The government undertakes
jto provide for fifty students, twenty-six of whom are to be educated
for the situation of teachers in public schools, and the remaining
four-and-tweuty are to go through a course of law, with the under-
standing, that they shall afterwards assist for a limited period in the
courts of judicature and offices of the civil department in Kiow,
Volhyuia, and Podolia. The annual grant in support of the uni-
versity is fixed at 248,300 roubles (about li,300Z.) In addition to
an observatory, the library, botanical gardens, and other collections,
formerly an appendage of the Lyceum of Volhynia, are to be trans-
ferred to Kiow ; and the schools of mechanical arts and geometrical
surveying (Arpenterie-geometrique), hitherto connected with that
Lyceum, are to be attached to this university. An academy for
military cadets is also to be established in Kiow.

Kirghish Execution and State of the Criminal Law. — * In one part
of the great steppe which lies on the northern bank of the Ilek, south
of Orenburg, and which, being studded with trees, forms a pleasing
contrast with the general aspect of this dreary region, we came upon
the ** auls " of Sultan Arungasi, who afterwards accompanied us
as far as the Jan-Darija. I should observe, that an aul signifies,
among the Kirghishes, a group of kibits or tents, though, in the
Tatar tongue, the word denotes a village. Arungasi's attention
was engrossed at the time with deciding upon the life or death of
an offender ; and it was reported to us, in the first instance, that he
intended to gratify us with the sight of an execution. The man had

. Foreign. 361

stolen several horses, and was doomed to die ; but his life was spared,
for the sultan trusted that such an act of clemency would ensure
him the divine blessing on the occasion of his intended visit to the
Jan-Darija. The criminal did not, however, altogfether escape pu-
nishment; and as I was an eye-witness of what befel him, I will
here relate what took place. First of all, the delinquent, having
been stripped almost naked, with his hands tied behind him, and
his face blackened with coal, was hunted up and down the auls ;
and if his legs did not carry him fast enough, he was belaid with
stripes by those who rode after him. He was driven a second time
through the auls, with a cord in his mouth, fastened to the tail of
a horse, on which a man rode, whilst another rider goaded him on-
wards from behind ; in this way he was again hunted between the
tents. After this, the throat of his horse vvas cut instead of
his own, and every individual in the crowd of Kirghisbes who
witnessed the scene, cut off a piece of the animal's flesh, whilst it
was yet warm and quivering, as a dainty dish for his evening
meal ; in fact, there was not a remnant of it left

' This species of partition, as well as that which occurs when plun-
derers divide their spoils, goes by the name of *' Kuldsha." I need
scarcely add, that the whole spectacle was accompanied by cries and
uproar of the wildest description. In this place I will insert some
of the Sultan's laws, which, so far as I am informed, constitute the
sum total of his code: — 1. The individual who is guilty of stealing
any animal whatever, be it a camel, horse, sheep, or the like, incurs
the penalty of death. His head is usually cut off with a knife. 2.
One who kills another (for a murderer buys himself off at a fixed
price paid in sheep) is mulcted in five hundred or two thousand
pieces of money, more or less, according to the wealth he possesses.
The last of these punishments bears a particular name in Kirghish,
and is termed ** Kun." If the offender cannot pay the penalty,
he is put to death. 3. To prevent the horses from getting away,
three of their feet are bound together with a set of straps of peculiar
make, called a tripede ; and any one guilty of stealing these straps
incurs the loss of both ears. 4. Other minor offences, such as wrang-
ling and tumult, assault and battery, &c., are punished with flogging.
When a delinquent is brought out to suffer death, he is placed bound
upon the ground, and then called upon to recite certain prayers
from the Koran ; but if he does not know them, which is almost
invariably the case, they are called over to him by a Mullah (priest),
and he repeats them afler him ; this being done, a loud cry of
" It is finished ; seize the wretch !" is heard ; and the executioner,
who is selected indiscriminately from the tribe, instantly dispatches
his victim.*— Dr. Eversmanns Journal of a Tour to Bokhara,

PRUSSIA.

We have lately received a copy of * The latest Survey of the Super-
ficial Extent, Population, and Amount of Cattle in the several
Provinces of the Prussian Dominions,' which has been recently pub-
lished by the office for statistics in Berlin ; it is to this work that we
are indebted for the following information.

302 jmscettaneous.

The census made by the police at the close of the year 1891 shows
the non*military popiidation of the kingdom to have amounted at

that period to 12,780,745 aools.

To these numbers are to be added the military
on actual service at the same date, inclusive
of 1556 individuals belonging to the gendar-
merie, 4763 in veteran companies and hos-
pitals for invalids, and 707 in the institutions
for cadets. In all • . • 189,650
The total number of the members of their
families and menial servants, includ*
ing 87,786 children who had not

completed their fourteenth year, was 68,565 258,215

The return made by the military authorities was,
thereforci

Total of the population at the close of the year

1881 13,038,960

Out of this amount the number of individuals

who had not completed their fourteenth Males. Females.

year was . . . . . 2,390,498 2,377.234
Individuals from fourteen upwards to sixty

years completed .... 3,717,378 3,765,875

Above sixty years of age . . . 384,994 402,981

6,492,870 6,546,090

Married persons ♦ .... 2,208,953 2,211,729
According to their religious persuasions, the population consisted
of the undermentioned classes : —

Evangelical Christians (Protestants) . . . 7,941,721
Roman Catholics (including a very inconsiderable num-
ber of individuals of the Greek persuasion) . • 4,915,153

Meunonites 14,756

Jews 167,330

Total 13,038,960

The principality of Neufchalel is not comprised in the above ac-
count, as its position and form of government essentially separate
it from the mass of the Prussian dominions. As matter of infor-
mation, it may, however, be here observed, that its superficial
extent, as given in the Ostervall Chart, is 295^/^ square mUes,
on which, at the close of the year 1831, there were living.

Of the male sex • . 26,234 individuals,

female . . 27,846

Total 54,080

* From the difference between the number of married males and femalei,
we conclude that widowers and widows are comprehended under this head.
The orig;inal return is — ^Lebten in der £he.

Foreign. 863

In order to complete this summary, we subjoin some particulars of
the several provinces into which the kingdom of Prussia is subdi-
vided, with reference to their superficial area, population, and the
number of horses and cattle, &c. bred in them, as stated at the close
of the year 1831.

S. A. Homed Sheep

Sq. Miles. Pop. Horses. Cattle. and Goats.

1. Prussia Proper . 24,738 1,989,608 428,311 786,939 1,665,883

2. Posen . . . 11,266 1,046,480 116, 719 386,461 1,668,886

3. Brandenburg . 15,351 1,537,123 162,831 611,224 1,964,744

4. Pomerania . . 11,909 888,631 126,525 395,570 1,580,663
6. Silesia . . , 15,676 2,424,967 167,774 765,433 2,403,953

6. Saxony . . . 9,673 1,427,797 142,997 425,662 1,864,802

7. Westphalia . . 7,719 1,242,462 120,795 464,963 390,966

8. Prov. of the Rhine 10,080 2,223,687 109,642 711,126 546,799

106,312 12,780,745 1,374,594 4,446,368 11,965,675

The population is the densest, therefore, in the province of the
Rhine, which occupies the sixth rank in superficial extent: and
the thinnest in Pomerania, which, in the same respect, occupies the
fourth rank.

The number of inhabitants living in 983 towns was 3,334,140
And in the 326 districts in the plain country* . 9,446,605
Some new regulations have recently been made with respect to the
circumstances under which students at the Prussian universities shall
be allowed to travel. Except during the vacations, no student can
receive a license to travel, unless he can show an authority to
that effect from his parents or guardians, and has been supplied
with the requisite means by them. Nor will a student, who has
taken any part, or is suspected of having taken any part, in secret
societies, be allowed to quit his university, unless for the purpose
of returning home ; and on his way to it he is enjoined to avoid
visiting any place in which there is a university.

Halle. — ^The number of professors at present here is 61, inde-
pendently of lecturers ; the students amount to 842, of whom
521 have matriculated in divinity, 162 in law, 95 in medicine, and
64 in philosophy. The * Allgemeine Literatur Zeitung,' which was
established by Professor Schutz fifty years ago, and is at present
edited by Professors Gesenius, Friedl^nder, Wegscheider, and five
others of their colleagues, will contain in future ' Historical Surveys
of tlic State of Literature in every Science,' in addition to the usual
critical matter.

Berlin. — The royal library in this city, which is one of the most
extensive in Germany, contains above 250,000 volumes of printed
works, and 4611 MSS. (Dr. Wilken, first librarian to his Prussian
Majesty, has stated that the first public library in Prussia was es-
tablished at the university of Frankfort on the Oder in the year
1516.) Frederic William, the 'great elector' of Brandenburg, being

* The rural population seems to be meant : the original words are, — In den
326 kreisen des pUttten landes.

364 Miseellaneous,

desirous of diffusing knowledge through the country, made very
extensive additions to the limited collection of books which his pre-
decessors had left behind them. The example was followed by his
successors, with the exception of Frederic William I., who could not
find a corner in his thoughts but for his grenadiers, and diverted
the library endowment to the payment of the disciplinarian who
drilled his Titans. Frederic the Great took great pains to render
the collection more complete ; but no monarch has been so muni-
ficent a benefactor to it as the prince now upon the throne.

The number of students who have matriculated at the university
of Berlin for the session from Michaelmas last to Easter next is
8561 ; of these 2001 have regularly matriculated ; namely, 595 to
the faculty of theology, 689 to law, 4U7 to medicine, and 310 to
philosophy. Among 'the 560 non-matriculated students, are 122
surgeons and 100 pupils in pharmacy, besides 113 pupils from the
Military Medico-Chirurg^cal Academy. Of the 2001 there are 1411
natives of Prussia.

Bonn. — In January last the number of students did not exceed
874, among whom there were 216 students of Catholic, and 98 of
Protestant theology. There were at that time exactly 100 students
at the university who were not Prussian subjects.

DENMARK.

The * Maanedskrifl for Literatur/ in publishing a list of the peno-
dical journals which appear in the Danish language, enumerates
forty that issue from the Copenhagen press, independently of those
which are brought out in other parts of Denmark. Amongst the
forty, there are ^ve devoted to theological subjects, four to medicine
and surgery, (inclusive of one to homoeopathies,) one to law, and
one to history and geography ; besides several of a critical and others
of a light description.

Kiel. — ^The number of students at present here does not exceed
294, including 17 foreigners.

ScAoo^.— ^There were 2733 schools in this kingdom in 1832, and
the number of youths, who were not able to read, scarcely exceeded
eight out of every thousand.

SWEDEN.

Lund.— The number of students for the present winter session of
this university amounts to 596 ; they may be classed as follows with
regard to age :—

Under the age of 15 14

Between 15 and 20 151

„ 20 and 25 253

„ 25 and 30 137

„ 30 and 35 26

„ 35 and 40 9

Above 40 6

Foreign. 365.

I But, classed according^ to the faculties for which they have entered

I themselves, their numbers stand as follows : — divinity lOS, juris-

prudence 130, medicine 50, and philosophy 160 ; the remaining 148

I have not yet entered themselves for any of these departments. There

( are 55 who have stipends from the Crown, and 29 enjoy private

I exhibitions. Out of the whole number, there are but two who are

I not of Swedish birth. If divided according to their ranks in life,

they will be found to consist of 43 sons of nobles, 114 of eccle-
siastics, 127 of burgesses, 114 of farmers and peasants, 146 of civil
servants of the crown, and 52 of individuals in the military service.

GREECE.

(From a Correspondent,) — ' Capo dlstrias, the late president, to
all appearance did much for the education of his fellow-countrymen
by forwarding the establishment of schools. In a former volume
we have given some account of the central school, or species of
university, which he founded at iSgina; and the number of young
men who flocked to it from every part of Greece in the first in-
stance, afforded indisputable evidence of the thirst for knowledge
which prevails throughout the country. But learning was not Capo
d*Istrias* object, as one of the leading professors in it observed ;
" he did not want learning or intelligence to make head, and accord-
ingly he laid so many impediments in the teacher's way, that the
institution fell to pieces." But better things are expected from King
Otho ; and the formation of a special board for inquiring into and
ameliorating the state of national education is at all events a favour-
able omen ; three masters, one of whom is a native of Germany,
have been already appointed, and a library has been purchased for
their use. The late president built a number of schools ; but, as if
he repented of his liberality, he suffered them to go to decay. There
is one at Corinth in particular, which has already become a piece of
modern antiquity ; it has stood for years without a roof, and to this
day has never resounded to the echo of master's or scholar's step.
Indeed, it is of no use to erect schools, unless teachers are at hand ;
and a supply of the latter is yet to be created. It is time that men
felt how idle a dream it is to expect that intelligence should spring
from the lower ranks. I should add, that a normal school has
already been open for some months past in this town (Nauplia) ; it
was instituted by the King's chaplain, the Rev. Mr. Weinzierl, for
the purpose of educating German teachers. The master, who is a
man of experience in his profession^ had twenty-eight boys under his
care in December last.' — S.

SYRIA.

M. Guys, formerly French consul at Tripoli, has compiled a work
on the actual state of this country, which we believe still remains
unpublished, and from which the subsequent notes on the subject
of education in that quarter are extracted. * Ain-Toura' (in the pro-
vince of Kesrouan) signifies the * water of the rock* in Syriac. It
is a small village, where a house with a rotunda has been built by

306

the Jesuits. This was the spot at which the first French mission to
the Levant fixed their quarters. The place is at present occupied
by the Lazarists, whose exertions are exceedingly useful to the
country, as they tend to diffuse education among the inhabitants, and
consequently to humanize them. At no great distance firom this
spot are a college and monastery, both conducted by the Maronites.'
In speaking of Bekerke, which is improperly denominated ' Kourket'
by some travellers, the writer says, ' It was a convent of Maronite
nuns, erected by the celebrated Judia, who became its abbess ; but
the notoriety which she has acquired, dispenses me from giving- any
particulars of her. I refer such as may have forgotten this wretch
to Volney's work on Syria. The patriarch of the Maronites has
been desirous of turning this edifice to account : he has converted it
into his winter-quarters, for he is tired of residing in the gorges of
Kanobin, a site delightful as a summer abode on account of its
abundant springs, but scarcely habitable during frosty weather. With
respect to the building which faces the convent, he observed, * It is
my wish to make a college or hospital of it.* This prelate is quite
a man of the present day ; intent upon educating the people, and
setting hospitals on foot for the lower orders. His name is Joussuf
Hobeisci. He was bishop of St. John of Acre, before the Pope
sent him the pallium as patriarch. His age is forty-five ; he is of
fine stature, and has pleasing features. Though he has never
set foot beyond the confines of Lebanon, his mind^ is stored with
knowledge : he has begun to learn Latin, and is now able to read
the bulls sent from Rome. His title is Patriarch of Antioch ;
but, as he is not recognized by the Porte, he is compelled to place
himself under the protection of the Emirs. Ain-Waraca, a college
which lies at a short distance from the village of Arissa in the
same province, owes its institution to the munificence of the
Maronite patriarch. All Maronite pupils are received into it free
of expense ; but those of other persuasions pay for tl^eir board.
The best Arabian interpreters at present in Europe were brought
up in this college ; I need but name the brothers Desgranges and
Caussin de Perceval, professors of Turkish and Arabic in the Col-
lege de France ; the brothers Dantan and Alphonso Geofroy in
Spain ; and Messieurs Soler and Testa in Sardinia. Bechir Scheba4»
the Emir, is inclined to enter into the views of the patriarch, who
derives powerful aid from the missionaries, by whom a foundation
for the civilization of the country about the Lebanon has been laid ;
but this mountain race have much to accomplish before they can place
themselves on a par with ourselves. A political amalgamation must
first be effected between the Maronites and Druses : nor do I see
any means of bringing it about, excepting by educating the children
of both under one and the same roof: and this cannot be done but
in Europe.'

UNITED STATES.

Co//cgfC«.— "There were not more than ten colleges in this portion of
the dependencies of the British crown at the time of the American

Foreign. 367

revolution in 1776 ; but| at the present day, there are altogether
sixty colleges and universities in the United States. They differ
widely from each other with respect to funds, endowments, and
the advantages which they afford for education. Some of them
have very limited means, and are not worthy of the title which
they assume ; others are possessed of valuable endowments and
able professors in the various departments of literature and science ;
none of them, however, are yet on so large a scale as the chief uni-
versity establishments in Europe. In most of these institutions a
course of four years* study is required in order to obtain the degree
of bachelor of arts; this course differs considerably in many of them,
but still there is a kind of uniform character in the general education
of the country. No small diversity exists with regard to the amount
of acquirements necessary for admission. In Harvard University,
the oldest institution in the country, the candidates for admission
into the Freshman's class are * examined in the whole of Virgil,
Cicero*s Select Orations, and Sallust ; Jacob's Greek Reader, and
the Four Gospels in the Greek Testament ; Adam's Latin Gram-
mar, and the Gloucester Greek Grammar, both including Pro*
sody (Buttmann's Greek Grammar is also received) ; the writing
of Latin ; Lacroix's Arithmetic, Euler's Algebra, and Worcester's
Elements of Geography Ancient and Modern.' The requisites for
admission into other institutions of equal respectability do not differ
much from these.

Librarie$, — The largest collections in the United .States are the
following : — ^The Philadelphia Library, 42,000 volumes ; Cambridge
University Library, 40,000 ; Boston Athenaeum, 26,000 ; New York
Society, ^2,000; National Library at Washington, 16,000; and
Charleston Society's Library, 14,000. Among the smallest of those
attached to colleges are, St. John's Episcopalian, Maryland, 400
volumes; and the East Tennessee and the Indiana, 200 each;
these were founded in the years 1784, 1807, and 1827 respectively.

BRITISH,

• UNIVERSITY INTELLIGENCE.

Physical Studies in Oxford. — In our last Number we made
some remarks on the present state of physical studies in the Univer-
sity of Oxford, and, in particular, on a plan laid before the legis-
lative body of that University, which had for its object to render
some portion of physical knowledge a necessary qualification for the
degree of B.A., — or, in other words, an essential part of univer-
sity education; it having been hitherto purely optional, and, as

368 Miscellaneous.

evinced by the results of the public eiaminations, not pursued by
more than one student in thiKeen. We promised then to recur to
the subject, whenever we should receive information respecting its
prop^ress. We have now received, from the same source as befpre,
the information (at which, we confess, we are more grieved than
surprised) that the measure in question has been rejected b^r the
learned body under whose grave deliberation iC -has fallen ; and
thus we find, at an advanced period of the nineteenth century, the
University of Oxford solemnly declaring, that physical knotoledge
neither is nor ought to be an essential part of a liberal education.
The measure was, from various causes, delayed ; but on the 24th
February it was announced to the supporters of the measure, that
the Board of Heads of Houses * judge it inexpedient to pro-
pose any alteration in the statute in question.' Thus is this salu-
tary and most moderate requisition defeated ; but we trust .only for
a time. The present age will surely never permit the classical
monopoly to continue its pernicious ascendency, and to weigh down
the intellectual energies of so many young men destined to form so
important a part of the community. We have not space, however, at
present for more than the mere announcement of the event. We
hope to recur to the subject at a future opportunity.

January 29th, — In a full convocation holden this day, his Grace
the Duke of Wellington was unanimously elected Chancellor of the
University, in the room of the lateLiord Grenville.

February 7th, — ^This day, the installation or admission of his
Grace the Duke of Wellington to the office of Chancellor of the
University of Oxford took place at Apsley House, in London.

Cambridge. — Hulsean Prize- Subject. — The following is the
subject for the present year (1834) : • How far the political circum-
stances of the Jewish nation were favourable to the introduction
and diffusion of the Christian religion/

Cambridge, January 24. List of Honours and Degrees.

Moderators. — ^John Hymers, M.A., St. John's ; and Henry Philpott, M.A.,
Catherine HaU.

£xA.MiNBRS. — Edwin Stevenson, M.A., Corpus ; Charles Whitley, M.A., St.
John's.

Mathematical Trifos, Wranglers. — Kelland, Queen's ; Birks, Trinity ;
Stevenson, Trinity; Pi7or, Trinity; Hoare, Trinity; Main, Queen's; Bul-
lock, John's ; Bates, Jesus ; Creuze, John's ; FJetcher, Pembroke ; Cocker,
Pet.; Hey, John's; Trentham, John's; Gooch, Trinity; Evans, Pet. ; irwin,
Caius ; Hutchinson, Magdalen ; Darley, Christ's ; Lawson, Magdalen ; Dal ton,
Caius ; Hulton, Trinity ; Morton, Trinity ; Hanson, Pembroke ; Low, John's ;
Marsh, Trinity ; Rolfe, John's ; Cock, Trinity, esq, ; Isaacson, Sidney, €cq. ;
Vaughan, Christ's ; Weldon, John's.

Senior Optimes. — Yarker, Caius ; Carlyon, Emmanuel, ceq, ; Forsyth, eeq. ;
Trinity ; Huxtable, John's ; Crow, Christ's ; Wilkinson, Queen's ; Giles, John's,
€pq. ; Selwyn, Trinity, aq, ; Cory, Pembroke ; Smyth, Trinity ; Palmer, Trinity ;
Bedford, Pet. ; Marsden, Corpus ; Wharton, John's ; Webster, Queen's ; Ne-
vin, John's ; Drew, John's ; Wood, John's ; Platten, Emmanuel ; Hanson,
Emmanuel; Cumming, Emmanuel; Ouvry, Trinity ; Bryer, John's; Jenner,
John's; Wilklns, Queen's; Bramah, Trinity; VYiUiams, F. S., Trinity;

British. S69

Coates, John*i ; Cotterill, John's ; Braithwaite, Glare; Walker, Christ'g;
Donaldson, Trinity ; Bromehead, Caias ; Sandford, John's; GleadowO) Cains ;
Barber, Corpus ; Warter, Magdalen ; Bailey, Trinity ; Jenkins, Trinity ; Lush-
ington, Trinity ; Johnstone, Trinity ; Mori son, Trinity ; Edge, Emmanuel;
Darnell, Trinity.

Junior OPTiMEs.— Haigh, Catherine; Barrow, Cains; Rawes, Clare; Skrhn-
shire, Catherine ; Goodchild, Magdalen ; Buswell, Queen's ; Foster, Magdalen ;
Wilson, John's; Wright, Trinity; Barnes, John's; Hurst, Clare; Williams,
A., Trinity; Nicholls, Trinity; Hulbert, Sidney; Simson, Clare; May, Je-
sus; Do wnes, Trinity ; Morant, Magdalen; Holmes, Trinity; Phillips, G. P.,
Trinity ; Bullock, Corpus ; Boys, John's ; Fearon, John's ; Bishopp, Pet. ;
Teale, John's; Parry, Magdalen; Kennedy, John's; Leathley, Trinity;
Saunders, Catherine.

January 31. — Dr. Smith's annual prizes of 25Z. each for the best
proficients in mathematics and natural philosophy were adjudged
to Philip Kelland of Queen's College, and Thomas Rawson Birks
of Trinity College, the first and second wranglers.

Classical Tripos, February 20, — ^Ezaminers, Connop Thirlwall, M.A.,
Trinity ; Thomas Henry Steel, M.A., Trinity ; Christopher Wordsworth, M.A.,
Trinity; John Frederick Isaacson, M.A., St. John's.

First Class. — Kennedy, John's; Donaldson, Trinity; Forsyth, Trinity;
Warter, Magdalen ; Weldon, John's ; Lushington, Trinity ; Vaughan, Christ's ;
Huxtable, John's ; Phillips, G., Trinity ; Evans, Pet. ; Marsh, Trinity ; Coates,
John's.

Second Class. — Webster, Queen's; Wilkinson, Queen's; Stevenson, Tri-
nity; Barrow, Caius; Foster, Magdalen; Williams, Trinity; Johnstone,
Trinity ; Morrison, Trinity ; Gray, Trinity ; Bailey, Trinity ; Sadford, John's.

Third Class, February 20. — Bromhead, Caius; Hey, John's; Cotterell,
John's ; Leathley, Trinity ; Palmer, Trinity ; Bryer, John*s ; Fletcher, Pem-
broke ; Holmes,' Trinity ; Morton, Trinity ; Fearon, John's ; Trentham,
John's ; Gleadowe, Caius ; Walker, Christ's ; Downes, Trinity ; Cumming,
£mmanuel ; Braithwaite, Clare ; Gooch, Trinity ; May, Jesus. *

March 5. — The chancellor s gold medals for the two best profi-
cients in classical learning among the commencing Bachelors of
Arts were adjudged to Thomas Kynaston Selwyn and William
Forsyth, of Trinity College.

March 2lst, — Lord Grey presented in the House of Lords the
following petition from a number of resident members of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge : —

' The humble petition of the undersigned, resident members of
the Senate of the UniTersity of Cambridge, showeth,

' That your petitioners are honestly attached to the doctrines and
discipline of the church of England as by law established, and are
well persuaded of the great benefits it hath conferred and is con-
ferring upon the kingdom at large. They beg leave also to declare
their sincere attachment to the University of Cambridge, grounded
upon its connexion with the established religion of the country, and
upon the wholesome effect it hath produced on the learning, piety,
and character of the nation.

' Strongly impressed with this conviction, they would humbly sub-
mit to your Honourable House their belief, as Protestant Christians,
that no system of civil or ecclesiastical polity was ever so devised
by the wisdom of man as not to require, from time to time, some
modification, from the change of external circumstances, or the pro-

Jan.^Afbil, 1834, 2 B

970 MisceUane&us.

gnnn of opinion. In conformity with these sentimenti^ they would
further sup^^st to your Honourable House, that no corporate body
like the University of Cambridge can exist in a free country io ho-
nour or in safety, unless its benefits be communicated to all classes
as widely as is compatible with the Christian principles of its foun-
dation.

* Among the changes which they think might be at once adopted
with advantage and safety, they would suggest to your Honourable
House the expediency of abrogating by legislative enactment every
religious test exacted from members of the University before they
proceed to degrees, whether of bachelor, master, or doctor, in arts,
law, and pliysic. In praying for the abolition of these restrictions,
they rejoice in being able to assure your Honourable House that they
are only asking for a restitution of their ancient academic laws and
laudable customs. These restrictions were imposed on the Univer-
sity in the reign of King James I., most of them in a manner infor-
mal and unprecedented, and grievously against the wishes of many
of the then members of the senate, during times of bitter party ani-
mosities, and during the prevalence of dogmas, both in church and
state, which are at variance with the present spirit of English law
and with the principles of Christian toleration.

' Your petitioners conscientiously believe, that if the prayer of this
petition be granted, the great advantages of good academic education
might be extended to many excellent men who are now, for con-
science' sake, debarred from a full participation in them, though true
friends to the institutions of the country : and your petitioners are
convinced that this is the best way at once to promote the public
good and to strengthen the foundations of the civil and ecclesiastical
establishments of this realm.

* The University is a body recognized by the law of England as
a lay corporation invested with important civil privileges, and on
that account resting on no secure foundation which is not in har-
mony with the social system of the state. Your petitioners therefore
humbly beg leave to suggest, that as the legislative bodies of the
United Kingdom have repealed the Test Act, and admitted Chris-
tians of all denominations to seats in Parliament and to places of
dignity and honour, they think it both impolitic and unjust that
any religious test should be exacted in the University, previously to
conferring the civil privileges implied in the degrees above enume-
rated.

* Lastly, your petitioners disclaim all intention of hereby inter-
fering, directly or indirectly, with the private statutes and regulations
of individual colleges, founded as those colleges are on specific bene-
factions, and governed by peculiar laws, of which the respective
heads and fellows are the legal and natural guardians.

' To the several clauses of this petition, the consideration of your
Honourable House is humbly but earnestly entreated, and your
petitioners, as in duty bound, will ever pray.'

This petition was signed by two heads of houses, nine professors,
eleven tutors, and forty-one others. It was presented to the House
of Commons the same evening by Mr. Spring iUce.

1833.

1834,

104

288

347

229

284

Mritith. 371

I London Univeriitt. — ^The Report of the council of this institution
■ was read on the 26th of February to the proprietors. It states, that
t soon afler the last general meeting, the professors had unanimously
i proposed to the council to guarantee to the university the income of
i BISIL during the session. The offer had been accepted ; but the

increase in the income of the university had reiidered it unnecessary

II for the council to avail themselves of this proof of the zeal and
I liberality of the professors, and their confidence in the ultimate
g success of the institution. During the year the munificent donation
^ of 1000/. had been presented to the university by an unknown friend,
;] under the name of a * Patriot.' Tlie amount received in fees in the
I session ending February 22, 1834, was 7344/., being an increase
I of 1186/. on that of the session ending on the same day of the
, preceding year. The number of students in the university at the

above periods respectively was,—

• Faculty of Arts

, ' Law •

^ ■■ Medicine

Pupils in the Junior Schools
Thus a satisfactory increase is exhibited in all the faculties except
that of law, the decline in which is attributed partly to the fact, that
the professor of jurisprudence (who has given notice of his intention
to resign his chair) has abstained altogether from lecturing this ses-

I sion, and partly to the establishment of lecturers in the immediate

neighbourhood of the law offices, which has tended to withdraw

' students from the class of English law in the university.

It having been determined to extend the subjects of study by the
institution of professorships of geography, the arts of design, and
mineralogy, Captain Machonochie, R.N., the secretary of the Royal
Geographical Society, had been appointed to the first of these chairs,
but the others are not yet filled. The Rev. Robert Vaughan has
been appointed to the chair of history, vacant since 1830; and Dr.
Rosen has accepted the professorship of Sanscrit, which has been se-
parated from that of modern oriental languages. The difficulties which
impede the attainment of a charter of incorporation for the University
have not yet been overcome ; but the council have taken measures
to bring before the Privy Council the objections of the Universities
of Oxford and Cambridge, and they trust that a long time will not
elapse before their just claim to this advantage will be allowed. In
the mean time the council mention with gratification, that the United
Associate Synod of Scotland^ at the instance of the Presbytery of
London, has resolved to recognize attendance upon the University of
London as equivalent to attendance on the usual classes at the Scotch
universities in candidates for admission to the divinity hall.

Kino's College."— A donation of 2000/. for the endowment of an
exhibition for educating young men in that institution, for the purpose
of qualifying them to act as missionaries of the Established Church in
the East, hwi been recently made by Major-General Sir H. Worsley^

2B2

3/2 MiscManeoui.

and the late W. Gosling, Esq., of Fleet-street, has bequeathed
1000/., free of leg^acy duty, towards completing the building of
this institution.

Westminster ScH00L.«-In our last Number, in noticing the
performance of one q£ Terence's plays by the Westminster Scholars,
we remarked on a breach of decorum which was stated in the pub-
lic papers to have occurred. Our remark appears to have been mis-
understood. We did not mean to assert that such a performance
necessarily led to disorder, but only, that in these holiday exhibi-
tions, when the strictness of discipline and the watchfulness of super-
intendence are necessarily relaxed, the boisterous mirth of a large
number of boys might not unnaturally lead to such an occurrence ;
and we therefore questioned whether the advantages of the exhi-
bition were sufficient to counterbalance this risk. It appears, how-
ever, that the exhibition is held under a statute, and could not be
discontinued even if the conductors of the school were so inclined.
The occurrence we alluded to seems also to have been much ex-
aggerated. The following we have every -reason to believe is a
correct version of the affair:— 'A town boy (t. e. one not on the
foundation) called over the back of the seats to the late college
porter to throw him up a potato ; this the old man thoughtlessly
did ; but the boy missing the catch, the potato flew by, and fell
among the other spectators. One only was thrown. We of course
regret having given currency to a story which had so slight a foun-
dation.

Eastern Athenjeum, London. — ^This institution was established
in October last, and has been decidedly successful. It is supported
by subscription: a yearly member pays one guinea, and a half-
yearly member twelve shillings. The building in which the meetings
are held is at Stepney Green, and is open every day from half-past
eight in the morning until eleven at night. The object of the institu-
tion is the diffusion of useful and entertaining knowledge by the
following means : — A library for reference and circulation ; reading*
class, and conversation rooms ; classes for attaining a knowledge of
languages and the sciences ; discussion upon all subjects, excepting
theology ; lectures on literature, science, and art; and a museum of
natural and artificial curiosities. Many interesting lectures have
been given, which have been very fully attended ; the library has
received several handsome donations, and is already a respectable
collection, and the subscribers are steadily increasing.

Graphic Society. — An association under this name has been
established, consisting of the different professional classes of
painters, sculptors, architects, and engravers, together with twenty
noblemen and gentlemen known as admirers of the fine arts, five
gentlemen distinguished in science, and five others eminent in
hterature, for the purpose of occasional meetings. The number
of the professional members is limited to one hundred, and each
member has the privilege of introducing a friend at each convensa^'

British. 373

zione, of vVhich there are to be six during the season, from January
to June inclusive, on the evening of the second Wednesday of each
month, at the Thatched House, St. James's- street. The ninth rule
provides, — * That in order to promote the interest and gratification
to be derived from the monthly meetings of the society, it is desirable
that the members do contribute to the conversazione any rare and
interesting works of art which they may possess, and can con-
veniently send to the place of meeting — such as drawings, sketches,
studies, prints, gems, models, and other objects of virtu and interest ;
and to ensure a succession of such attractions, a list of the members
shall be made out, in alphabetical rotation, at the beginning of each
session, and divided by the number of meetings ; and the gentlemen
whose names are attached to each night are, more particularly upon
those evenings, expected to furnish their contributions to the in-
terest of the conversazione. This regulation is not intended to
prevent any member from sending such works on any other evening
also if he is so disposed.

Mt is desirable that visiters should be respectfully requested to
aid this source of pleasure, by contributing any works of art they
may possess, and thus gratify the society by allowing them to be
seen at its conversazioni.'

Suppression of Juvenile Vagrancy. — ^The last published re-
port of this society states, that, as far as their limited means have
allowed, their exertions have been highly successful. At their esta-
blishment at Hampton Wick, to which some land is attached, the
children rescued from want and vagrancy are carefully instructed
in moral and religious duties by an able and vigilant teacher, as
«well as in different species of agricultural and manual employment.
They are afterwards provided with suitable situations at home, or
apprenticed, with their own free consent, to individuals at the Cape
of Good Hope. Two hundred and fifly boys have been thus
provided for, at a comparatively small expense, beneficially to them-
selves, and with advantage to society. Of the above number sixty-
nine have been sent to the Cape. Of these a list is given, together
with the names of their masters at the Cape. In apprenticing the
boys, we think it would be desirable, if possible, to separate the lads
as much as possible, as, with their previous early habits, and a
superintendence necessarily much less active than that of the esta-
blishment at home, the association of a number of boys is likely to
lead to a relapse intq habits of idleness and disobedience. We are
led to this remark from observing that many of the masters have
two, one master has five, and another six of these boys apprenticed
to him. The efforts of the society have been hitherto confined to
boys ; with an increase of funds, the society contemplate extending
their operations to cases of destitute and vagrant female children.

Hampstead Public Library. — We have often seen cause to
regret the very small extension of reading societies in places where
the large population was amply sufficient to maintain a library ; and

374 Miscellaneous.

wc hav« been induced to think that co-operation was only wanting
to ensure success to a popular institution.

Until the month of January, 1833, the idea of a Public Library
at Hampstead had not been started. It was judged best by the few
who entered into the scheme, immediately on its bein^ proposed
to them, to establish a library at once, lipon such terms as should
open it to all classes. The resolution was taken in the beginning: of
February ; a room was hired to receive donations of books, handbills
were published inviting subscriptions, and on the 4th of March, only
one month from the commencement of the design, The Hampstead
Public Library was opened on the following terms: —

Shareholders, in whom the property is vested, to make a single
advance of IL and pay 2«. 6d. or Is, quarterly, at their option.
Quarterly subscribers to pay 2s, 6cf., or la. also at their option.
Weekly subscribers, Id. To each class was allowed the privilege of
taking out one book at a time.

The collection began with 200 volumes, which, being increased
within three months to 1100, and the subscribers, originally 15»
amounting to 100, it was thought desirable to call a general meeting
of these and their friends. At this meeting the plan of the founders
was warmly approved, and the laws read and confirmed, with some
additions. The penny subscription has been subsequently abolished,
and the exclusion of party works in religion and politics has been
made a permanent law.

By Christmas last twenty-four new subscribers had been added;
and 1600 carefully selected volumes of sound English literature,
with a few quarterly periodicals, may now be read by every inhabi-
tant of Hampstead who can spare a shilling each quarter. It is evi-
dent that the institution is indebted for its rapid increase to the
liberal donations of friends to general instruction ; many of whom,
not resident in the place, have thus kindly assisted the Hampstead
Library. The objects of the institution were explained at the meet-
ing in an interesting address by the Rev. Geo. Kenrick, who re-
marked^ that the want of a public library had long been felt in
Hampstead, but no one had been found to stir in its behalf, from a
fear, but too well grounded on experience, that any scheme
proposed by one party in politics or religion would be opposed or
feebly supported by all other parties. ' But a great change has
taken place,' continued the speaker; * and we may now congra-
tulate each other upon the spirit of harmony and generosity which
presides over the two institutions formed in Hampstead during the
past winter.* (Allusion is here made to the Scientific Institution
which meets every fortnight, and which began with eighty members.)
* It is needless here to comment upon the so-oflen named incon-
sistency of teaching every child to read, and afterwards omitting to
provide books for them, or upon the thoughtless assertion that work-
ing people have enough to do without reading; as if they were to
have no rest, or when at rest, no recreation for their thoughts. Some
persons are much amused at the idea that individuals of the humbler
class should be attached to reading, and become subscribers to

Briiish. 376

libraries, more still that their voice should be listened to in the dis-
posal of the funds which they have contributed to raise/

London Literary and Scientific Institution. — On the 6th
of March, the half-yearly general meeting of this institution was held
in the theatre of the establishment in Aldersgate Street. Mr. Grote,
M.P., took the chair, and the Secretary read the report, from which
it appeared that the number of members at present amounted to
847, having increased 208 during the last six months ; that the
library had been very considerably increased by purchases and by
donations, the number of volumes being now upwards of 5700 ;
and that the lectures, which had been given gratuitously by several
gentlemen, had been well attended. The state of the funds also
was highly satisfactory. i— ^— —

Interlinear Translations. — We print the following letter,
which has been addressed to us, for the consideration of parents and
teachers, without giving any opinion as to the general applicability
of the methods here described, or on the books used. The facts we
believe to be strictly true.

* The following account of a teacher's experience will perhaps be
interesting to some of your readers, who may be anxious to lessen
the time and labour usually bestowed on the acquisition of the ele-
ments of the Latin language, and yet may hesitate to depart from
the old established plan of teaching, and to venture on an untried
path, lest they should have the mortification of being compelled to
retrace their steps.

' In July, 1832, three boys came to me, all equally unacquainted,
or nearly so, with the Latin language. One had not read a word
of it, and the other two had very imperfectly learned a little of the
grammar. I immediately put into their hands " The Fables of
Phaedrus, with an Interlinear Translation," '* The London Latin
Grammar," and " Hall's Roots of the Latin Language.** A Fable
of Phaedrus was learned every day, with a portion of the Latin acci-
dence, and a page of Hall's Roots. By the 6th of October they
had finished Phaedrus, and had commenced reading ** Caesar's In-
vasion of Britain, with an Interlinear Translation,'* and at the same
time had begun a second reading of Phaedrus without the Transla^
Hon. During this time they had been writing as exercises, first, sub-
stantives declined in all their cases, then substantives and adjectives
together, and then verbs in all their tenses. They went through
the Caesar with so much ease, that I was able, on the 3d of Novem-
ber, to put into their hands the *' Selection from Ovid's Metamor-
phoses, with an Interlinear Translation," which occupied them till
Christmas. By this time they had gone through the whole of the
accidence and the syntax, (which is written in English, and is a
translation of that in the Eton grammar,) and they were capable of
giving the inflections of most of the words in their lessons. They
had also gone through HalFs Roots.

'After the holidays they went on with Ovid, at the same time com-
mencing the regular syntactical parsing ; and as soon as they had
gone a second time through the syntax, they began the prosody and

976 MuceUaneous.

its application to the scanning of the book they were reading. When
Ovid had been once read over, they read it a second time without
the iranslationt and this occupied them till the beginning of May,
at which time I g^ve them ** Caesar'* without a translation. Of this
they read about twelve chapters of Book I., continuing to read occa-
sionally the Ovid to refresh their memory, and to exercise them in
scanning. During the whole half-year they continued to repeat
'* Hall's Latin Roots," and a portion of the grammar every day, and
they were daily practised in parsing and scanning. Their written
exercises at this time consisted of the First Part of " Ellis's Ex-
ercises," translations into English of Ceesarand Ovid, and parsing.

* The third half-year commenced with the reading of Caesar from
the beginning of Book L, and by the month of November they had
finished the whole of that book without the assistance of any trans-
lation. In September they bejj^an to read the ** First Book of Virgil's
iEneid, with an Interlinear Translation," regularly parsing, scanning,
and proving a portion of each lesson ; and before the holidays they
had finished that book, and had read over more than half of it a
second time to prepare for their examination. Their exercises during
the half-year consisted of the Second Part of Ellis, written transla-
tions, and parsing. The repetition of the Grammar formed a regular
part of each day's worL A few trials of '* Nonsense Versification"
were made, but these cost them no trouble at all.

* After the holidays they will proceed with Virgil, Book II., dis-
pensing with the aid of translation altogether.

' They are now capable of reading and translating with accuracy
the whole of the First Book of the iBueid, and the First Book of
Cssar's Commentaries : they can give the conjugation, perfect, and
supine of any verb, the declension and gender of any noun, and can
account for most of the ordinary constructions of syntax, and many
of the more unusual ones ; they can scan and prove by rule any
verse in the First iEneid, and can answer most of the mythological,
historical, and geographical questions which arise out of the reading
of it, and of Caesar ; and they can write out, with very few errors,
ten or a dozen sentences at a time of Ellis, Part II., which they
have not before srone over. All this is the result of the labour of
one year and u half, with no more than their share of one person s
attention, which has been divided among fifteen to eighteen boys,
of ages varying from eight to seventeen years. I ought also to men-
tion, that during this time the other ordinary branches of a liberal
education have been regularly attended to, such as French, geo-
graphy, writing, arithmetic, &c.

' I will only add, that they were examined before each vacation
with the rest of my boys, by a competent person ; and I shall be
happy to submit them to the inspection of any friend of yours, who
may wish to satisfy himself of the practicability of what I have
stated.*

Blue-Coat Hospital, Liiverpool. — In this institution there are
clothed, fed, and taught, to use the words of the last report, * 250
boys, and 100 girls, of which number 131 are orphans, 198 father-
less; S niotherless, and 13 who have parents, but in indigent cir*

BriiUh. r 377

curhstances.' The Report of the present year is very short, and
affords no distinct information as to the nature of the instruction
afforded to the children ; from some passages in it, we are howerer
induced to think it must be judicious. It states, that in 18*24 a
library was formed for the use of the pupils, which has been con-
tinued ever since with the best results ; that, ' whilst it furnishes
the pupils with a store both of amusement and instruction, it
operates also as a strong incentive to good conduct, — the privilege
of reading the books being confined to those boys whose general
behaviour is considered deserving the indulgence. Another most
important advantage has been gained by the establishment of this
library ; by allowing the books to circulate amongst those boys who
have been apprenticed from the school, on their producing a written
certificate of good conduct from their employers, the connexion be-
tween them and the institution is thus kept up after they have left
it ; and this has been found productive of the most beneficial results,
both to the masters and apprentices. Applications for this privilege
are on the increase, and the trustees consider it their duty to promote
this feeling amongst the young men by every means in their power ;
because it will enable them to guide their reading into a safe
channel, and to direct the knowledge they have acquired in the
school to its proper end.' Last year also the mayor of the town
made the school a present of 35^. to purchase a pair of globes ; which
has been done.

Manchester Mechanics' Institute. — The general meeting for
the distribution of prizes, &c., was held on the 14th of January.
The Lord Chancellor had promised to attend, but was prevented
by the sudden death of his brother. The tickets of admission were
limited so as to prevent any confusion or inconvenience, and the
hall, which is calculated to contain one thousand persons, was well
but not uncomfortably filled. Many eminent individuals were pre-
sent, among whom were Dr. Dalton, Dr. Henry, Mr. Davies, and'
several members of parliament. The Chairman, B. Heywood, Esq.,
then proceeded to address to the company a very detailed statement
of the proceedings of the institution. Among other things he
stated that the library now consisted of 2150 volumes; and during
the year there had been 15,843 deliveries of books to 750 sub-
scribers, for home reading. In describing the lectures that had
been delivered, the speaker mentioned that Dr. Lardner had begun
a course on gravitation, mechanics, and the steam- engine; but there
had been a want of lectures on political and domestic economy :
however, the kindness of the Lord Chancellor had obtained for
them a copy of a course of lectures which had been delivered at the
London Mechanics' Institute. Classes in the French language and
in chemistry had been added during the year to the elementary
schools. The classes for instruction are now the following : writing,
arithmetic and algebra, grammar and composition, geometry and
mensuration, mechanical drawing, architectural drawing, figure,
landscape, and flower drawing, gymnastic exercises, French, and
chemistry.

A society for mutual improvement had also been formed among

378 MhcMmdoui.

the members, with a view to rational recreation and the acquisition
of knowledge, by social meetings in winter, and out*door enjoyments
in summer. Tliis association consists of seventy members; and
the President described with much animation the subjects which had
been discussed in conversation during the winter meetings, and
among the summer enjoyments he mentioned a trip to Liverpool, and
the Icind and fraternal treatment which they received from the Mecha-
nics' Institute in that town. After adverting to the happy disappoint-
ment of the common anticipation, that the Association for Mutual
Improvement would introduce discord into the institution , and be-
come a low debating club, composed of noisy disputants and igno*
rant declaimers, the Chairman proceeded to state, that * at this very
time the members of this society are actively interesting themselves
in the consideration of the best means of establishing cheap cir-
culating libraries of useful and entertaining knowledge in (he
different districts of the town — a call for which amongst the working
classes has so unequivocally manifested itself to the visiters of the
Provident Society. They have expressed a wish, too, that a class
for music may be established in the institution, and I sincerely hope
this may be done. *' Music," as the Spectator said the other day,
**is one inlet to happiness; it is one of the purest, most elevated,
and most innocent sources of enjoyment that the benevolence of
the Creator has vouchsafed to man ; and those who are, from what*
ever cause, debarred from its participation, taste not one of the
sweetest ingredients that Providence has mingled in the cup of
human life. It has unfortunately been perverted into an article of
luxury, an expensive and exclusive pleasure — followed successfully
by few as a profession — ^regarded by still fewer as a means of social
enjoyment. It ought not thus to be. Were it taught as generally
in our schools as in those of Germany, its pleasures would be as
widely diffused, and its true character and design as extensively felt.
We should find it resorted to alike by rich and poor." Why should
we not have occasional concerts in this very room, and place within
the reach of the working man a pleasure so pure, and, in its moral
influence, so beneficial? We have found more difficulty than I had
anticipated in carrying into effect the suggestion I ventured to make
at our last meeting, of the desirableness of establishing a School of
Design, and especially for teaching the application of machinery to
the transfer of patterns, but I have hope that we shall, ere long,
accomplish it. An object of more pressing importance is the esta-
blishment of a day school within our walls, upon a system better
calculated than those which generally prevail, for giving to the
children of the working man a good and cheap education. We have,
in many respects, an excellent model in the Edinburgh Sessional
School. Our large room up stairs is well fitted for the purposes of
such a school, and, with a competent master, I am sure it would
soon defray its own expenses. The Directors are now engaged
in making the preliminary arrangements, and I hope many months
will not elapse before the plan is in operation.'

After some further remarks from the Chairman, Lord Morpeth
addressed the company on the beneficial tendency of the institution ;

Brittsh. 879

the Chairman then declared the names of the succeRbful candidates,
makinpf appropriate remarks on each as he proceeded ; and Lord
Morpeth distributed the prizes as follows : —

Mechanical Drawing Class. — 1st Prize— Thomas Farnworth,
engraver — ^Tredgo!d on Steam-Engines. — 2d ditto— G. R. Gau-
thorp, clerk — Histoire de Napolfeon.

Architectural Drawing Class, — 1st Prize — Matthew Blackwell,
stone-mason — Nicholson's Principles of Architecture. — 2d ditto-
Peter Alley, clerk — Case of Drawing Instruments.

Landscape and Figure Drawing Class, — Landscape Prize-
John Hill, engraver — Case of Drawing Instruments. — Figure ditto
— Charles Frost, engraver — ^Walker's Dictionary, and Elements of
Elocution.

Mathematical Classes, — Ist Prize — Isaac Newton, spinner*—
Biot*s Pr«5cis El^mentaire de Physique Expt^rimentale.*— 2d ditto —
R. A. Phillips, clerk— Arnott's Elements of Physics.— 3d ditto—
R. A. Phillips, clerk — Bourchalat's Differential Calculus.

Grammar Cla^s, — 1st Prize — ^John Spencer, clerk — A Selection
from * Dove's British Classics.' — 2d ditto — ^John Jerom, clerk —
Blair^s Lectures, and the Spectator.

French Class, — 1st Prize — Robert Orrell, clerk — Bolsters Dic-
tionnaire Universel. — 2d ditto — Isaac Newton, spinner — Bour-
chalat's Differential Calculus.

The Chairman subsequently read a letter from Dr. Lardner, in
which he announced his intention of instituting the following prizes
for the ensuing year.

1st. For the best observations on the inutility of attempts to solve
the geometrical problem of squaring the circle, a prize, in books, to
the value of twenty-four shillings.

2d. For the tiext best observations on the same subject, a prize,
in books, to the value of twelve shillings.

3d. For the best observations on the absurdity of attempts to
discover a perpetual motion, a prize, in books, value twenty-four
shillings.

4th. For the next best observations on the same subject, a prize,
in books, value twelve shillings.

Afler speeches from several of the gentlemen present, the meeting
separated. ■

Manchester and Salford District Provident Society. — ^The
advantages of savings banks in generating and fostering habits of
economy and prudence have been generally acknowledged, but
there are still in large towns a considerable class to whom these
institutions are inaccessible, as they do not receive deposits so small
as the class we allude to can afford to make. To meet their circum-
stances, therefore, and to repress mendicity, at the same time that
relief is afforded, a Provident Society was established at Brighton
With very advantageous results. This institution we have already
noticed. The example has been since imitated in several other
places ; and last year it was determined to adopt the plan in Man-
chester and Salford. The principle is to employ visiters to collect

380 MUcdlaneoxii.

even the most trifling sums from the poor at their own homes, which
is returned to them with a small premium, whenever they require it.
The expenses are defrayed by subscription, and relief is afforded in
cases of want of work, sickness, or other casualties ; but it is admi-
nistered as seldom as possible in money. The success in Manchester
has been already very decisive. The district has been divided into
169 sections. In July last four sections were in operation, and the
deposits amounted in the month to 8/. Ss. In December, the last
month of which a report is given, the whole of the sections were in
operation; the number of depositors amounted to 915, and the
amount of money deposited to 109/. 6«. 9j^. The report also
notices the success of a similar institution at Liverpool, in which
the deposits during the same month of December were 908/. 175. l<i.
The society also proposes, by employing an agent to investigate
every case of mendicity before relief is granted, to repress impos-
ture, and discountenance public begging, and to give the unfor-
tunate and the deserving more effectual assistance. This they
state has already effected much good, and disclosed many instances
of shameless fraud or gross indolence. The example has already
spread to several of the surrounding places, and similar societies
have been established at Altrincham, Darwen, Preston, and Wigan.
At Oldham and Bury, also, they are about to be immediately esta-
blished. ■ ■

Yorkshire School for the Blind.— Efforts are making to
establish a school of this description as a tribute to the memory
of the late William Wilberforce. The desirableness of the object
cannot be doubted, when it is known that there are probably in York-
shire alone from three to four hundred proper subjects for such a
school, a number greater than is contained in all the existing insti-
tutions in England. The benevolent promoters of the scheme ap-
pear to be aware of the vast improvements that have been introduced
into the education of the blind in America and elsewhere ; and
therefore it is to be hoped they will not fail to introduce them into
their establishment when they have succeeded, as we trust they will,
in raising the funds necessary for the purpose.

MiNCHiNHAMPTON. — The town and parish of Minchinhampton,
Gloucestershire, with the two adjoining parishes of Horsley andAven-
ing, comprise a population of about 13,000 persons. The means for
the education of the children of the inhabitants appear to be very in-
adequate. In a communication from that town, it is stated, that
for the education of the poor there are three free-schools, two of
which are combined with subscription schools, some boys being
free, and others paying a small sum ; two national schools, and two
or three others uniting the Lancasterian plan to a greater or less
extent ; twelve Sunday-schools, four of which are connected with
the Establishment, two with Independents, three with Baptists, and
three with Wesleyan methodists ; and a few dames-schools, v^r^f
scantily attended. Of schools for the middle class there are only
two pr three for each se;c, though some time since these were more

BritUh. S81

numerous, but have fallen off in consequence of the depressed state
of the manufactures in the town and neighbourhood. There is also
one infant school. The total number of children attending these
schools is estimated at about 1200 boys and 1300 girls ; but as many
are reckoned both in the Sunday and day schools, the actual num-
ber will not exceed 900 of the former, and 1000 of the latter, and of
these about 400 boys and 500 girls are instructed at Sunday-schools
only, leaving not more than about 500 of each sex receiving daily
instruction. There are no public libraries, except two or three cir*
culating libraries of little importance, though some school libraries
are now in the course of establishment. There are three reading
societies, one in the town of Minchinhampton, one at Nailsworth,
and one near the last mentioned town, of which the Vicar of Horsley
is the steward. There is no mechanics' institute in any of the
three parishes ; there is, however, one at Stroud, which is about four
miles from Minchinhampton ; and at Nailsworth, which is a village
where the three parishes unite, there is a Philosophical Society, con-
sisting of about fourteen proprietors and a few subscribers, but it
has been lately inactive.

Leighton Buzzard. — A writer in the Bucks Gazette states that
a library for the labouring classes ' has been gratuitously set on foot
by a private individual of this town, for the sole object of diffusing
useful knowledge and religious instruction among the labouring
classes. Men, women, and children, all partake of the laudable in-
stitution of this kind and liberal individual ; and it is pleasing to
observe the eagerness evinced to obtain books by this class of
society. The books are exchanged once a month ; and I am in-
formed that nearly two hundred volumes were lent at the first open-
ing of the Library — that, when the time of exchange came round,
nearly three hundred and fifty volumes were distributed, including
those taken in exchange. The books came in evidently for the most
part read, and in good condition. — There was an attempt, some few
years since, to establish a mechanics' institute in this town, but it
failed.'

Leek, Staffordshire. — A new national school is about to be
erected at this place. A liberal subscription has been entered into,
to which the bishop of the diocese has contributed, and -the Earl of
Macclesfield has also given a very handsome donation and the
ground for building.

SCOTLAND.

Glasgow Grammar School. — The managers of this school have
published a statement of the progress of the different classes during
the year ending October, 1833. It shows the course of study in
each class, the books used, the nature of the exercises, the prizes
adjudged, and the names of the successful competitors. The pub-
licity thus given, as we have before remarked, must be beneficial ;
errors can no longer be shrouded in mystery, and the improve-
ments of experience are thus made public for the benefit of all.

362 MiteeUan^aus.

lMvtufBM.«*»At a meeting of the town council of lavemess in
February last, the provost adverted to the advantages which the
north of Scotland, and particularly the town of Inverness, would
receive from the establishment of a college or university in Inverness,
for teaching the higher branches of education, and conferring de-
grees ; and observed, that perhaps it might not be found impracticable
to render Mackintosh's and Bell's endowments, or other funds, in
some degree subservient to the promotion of this object. The
council unanimously approved of the provost's suggestion, and the
question was referred to a committee for consideration.

IRELAND.

Dublin University. — ^At the last Hilary Term examination, the
following are the names of the successful candidates among^ the
Senior Sophisters, arranged in the order of their standing on the
College books.

Honours in Scimce — First Rank, — Mr, Robert Gore, Charles
Graves, Charles Sharman Crawford, Francis Beamish, Alexander
Smith Orr, Richard Townsend, James Morris. Secojid Rank — Mr.
William Grogan, Joseph Carron, William Mockler, George Cramp-
ton, Robert Finlay, Francis Webb.

Honours in Classics — First Rank, — Charles Graves, William
Reeves, William Fitzgerald, Thomas Hathoriithwaite, Henry Tay-
lor Ringwood, William Henry Meara. Second Rank — Mr. George
Lefroy, Joseph Carson, jCharles Hawkes Todd, Thomas Walshe,
John Coghlan, John Murray, Edward Trevor, Daniel Lonergan.

Of the other classes our limits will only allow us to give the num-
bers. They are :—

Honours in Science. Honours in Classics.

IstRank. 2d Rank. 1st Rank. 2d Rank.

Junior Sophisters 7 10 6 16

Senior Freshmen 10 15 8 17

Junior Freshmen 9 15 10 20

The gold medals given, by Bishop Berkeley for proficiency in
Greek were awarded to Ds. Booth (Jas.)> Ds. Miller (Jas.), and
Ds. Flynn (Dan.)

Commencements were held on Tuesday, February 11 — ^John
RadclifTe, LL.D., Pro Vice-Chan cellor ; when the following degrees
were conferred : —

Doctor and Bachelor in Divinity, I ; Doctor and Bachelor in Law,
5; Master of Arts, 32; Bachelor in Medicine, 10; Bachelor of

Arts, 147.

Belfast Museum. — The Belfast Museum was originally esta-
blished on a very small scale in 1821. The expenses have all been
met by subscription, and the institution has been so well supported,
that not only have the original objects of the institution been ex-
tended, and the collection of the museum enlarged, but a new and
handsome building has been erected in College-square for the pur-
poses of the society. But though this has been done, and though the
institution is now free from debt, yet much of the interior remains
in an unfinished state ; and the subscriptions being merely sufficient

British. 383

to meet the annual expenses, leave no surplus to be devoted to its
completion. The report states, * The ordinary meeting-room is
insufficient to accommodate the number of visiters who assemble on
each successive public night, and an adjournment to a large but
unfinished apartment has been rendered indispensable. The room,
forty-seven feet in length, and twenty-seven in breadth, is in a very
unfinished condition, as is also the one intended for the library.
The collection of specimens is displayed in a room complete in every
respect, except that some additional cases for their proper display
would be required. Those specimens which at present cannot be
exhibited, consist — of native birds ; of the minerals of the basaltic
district from Belfast to the Giant's Causeway ; of rocks illustrative of
the geological formation of this neighbourhood; and of fossil remains
imbedded in its several strata. A collection of many tropical birds,
and of amphibious animals from the West Indies and from Ceylon,
would likewise be added to the collection as soon as arrangements
could be made for their reception. They at present remain in the
several packages in which they arrived. It is, therefore, an object
of primary importance to all the friends of the Belfast Museum,
that the interior of the building should be finished in a style corre-
sponding to the elegance of the exterior ; and that every specimen
that has been presented should be exhibited, with the name of the
donor attached, in the place fitted for its proper display and pre-
servation.' The nature and objects of the society may be more
readily gathered from the following passage in the report detailing
the course of their proceedings : — * The meetings of the Natural
History Society are held once each fortnight, and papers are read
on the different branches of zoology, botany, mineralogy, and geo-
logy, on such parts of natural philosophy as are more immediately
connected with the phenomena of animal and vegetable life, and on
topography, statistics, and antiquities, more especially those of Ire-
land. In the conversation by which the paper is succeeded, many
interesting topics are discussed, and much valuable and often ori-
ginal information elicited. Besides the regular meetings of the
Natural History Society, one of a more popular and more public
nature is held in each month, and attended by an audience con-
sisting of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty individuals,
a large number of whom are ladies. Some change in the arrange-
ment of those public papers is at present under consideration, and
short courses of lectures on the different branches of natural history
are contemplated.' In addition to the above, the report notices,
that, ' In a former circular it was stated that a chemical laboratory
would be attached to the building, and a hope was expressed, that
the fine arts might, at no very distant day, find, under the roof of
the Belfast Museum, an abode worthy of their refined and elevated
spirit. Neither of those views has been abandoned ; but the objects
above enumerated must, for the present, take precedence.' The
council conclude by expressing their confidence that the patronage
of the public will eventually enable them to realize all their in-
tentions, from which they anticipate the most advantageous results.

INDEX.

Algiers, itate of, 174.

America, the St. John Indians in the
United States of, 175 ; education in
the state of Maine in, 176

Arnold, Dr,^ observations by, on the
morsl and intellectual instruction of
pupils in English boarding-schools,
43

Aru and Trades, school of at Menars,
course of instruction at, 6

Australia, establishment of a Mecha-
nics* School of Arts at Sydney in,
179

Axioms, notice of Geometry without,
105

Banbury National Schools, account of,
188

Basle, abolition of the university of,
354

Belfast Museum, account of, 382

Belgium, universities and schools in,
158

Berlin, libraries and students in, 363

Boarding-schools, English, general ob-
servations on, 36 ; remarks on the
actual state of, 38 ; on the character
and treatment of assistant teachers
in, 40 ; on the moral and intellectual
instruction of the pupils in, 41 ; Dr.
Arnold's observations on, 43

Bombay, proceedings at, for the edu-
cation of the natives in India, 22

Bonn, account of the system of educa-
tion pursued in the Gymnasium at,
249, et seq. ; students in, 364

Britain, Great, Treasury regulations
for the appropriation of 20,000/.,
voted by parliament in aid of build-
ing schools for the poorer classes in,

79
Buttmann's, Dr. Philip, Larger Greek
Grammar, translated by D. Boiieau,
Esq., review of, 115

Calcutta, institution of infant schools

in, 180
Cambridge University, proceedings at,

181 ; list of honours and degrees in,
368; petition from resident mem-
bers of, 369

Campbell, A. D., extracts from a re-
port by, concerning the education of
the natives in India, 16

Chimay, Prince Joseph of, founder of
the institution at Menars, account
of, 8

Cramer*8 Geographical and Historical
Description of Ancient Italy, re-
view of, 311, «/ teq.'f importance of
gef^raphical studies, ib. ; number of
geographical works on Ancient Italy
by Italian authors, 312 ; various
appellations of Italy, 313 ; Liiguria,
geographical description of, 314;
cities and towns of Lig^ria, 316;
Alpes CottiflB, origin of the name,
317 ; the river Po, 318 ; Milan,
historical account of, 320 ; Acerr»
(now Gherra), account of, 321 ;
Etruria, account of, 322 ; ancient
cities of Etruria, 323; Leghorn
situated on the site of the Portus
Pisanus described by Rutilius, 324 ;
Tarquinii, where situated, 325 ; the
Umbri, one of the oldest nations of
Italy, 327; spot where Asdrubal
was defeated and slain, 328 ; site of
the ancient town Forum Sempronii,
328 ; site of Tadinum, 329 ; ruins
of Trebia, 330 ; on the country
of the Sabines, 331 ;> Campania,
335 ; Cumse, ruins and neighbour-
hood of, 336 ; tomb of Virgil at Na-
ples, 337 ; Pompeii, remarks on the
site of, ib. ; on the country of the
Samnites, 339 ; remarks on the pro-
vince of Lucania and the district of
the Bruttii, 341 ; the city of Croton,
345 ; site of Sybaris, 346

Deaf and Dumb, Yorkshire institution
for the, account of, 193, et teq.;
number of deaf and dumb persons
in England, 193; their unhappy con-
dition, ib.; institution originated by
BIr. Fenton, 196; established at

INDEX.

385

Eftstfield-House, near Doncaflter, ib, ;
not altog^ether gratuitous, 197 ; East-
field-house purchased, ib. ; why not
a larger number instructed, 198;
means used for the instruction of the
deaf and dumb, 200 ; number which
ought to be admitted at first, 202 ;
manner of commencing the instruc-
tion, 203 ; eariv exercises, 204 ; me-
thod of teaching grammar, 206 ;
lessons on which they are exercised,
210; moral instruction, 212; dia-
grams and tablets, ib,, 213 ; printed
books, 214 ; arithmetic and geogra-
phy, 215 ; models of the lessons on
the horse, 216; composition taught,
218 ; the books used during the third
year, 219; system of instruction
during the fourth year, 221 ; moral
instruction, ib, ; lessons to illustrate
abstract ideas, 223 ; use of figurative
language, 224 ; examinations of the
pupils, 225 ; abstract of the rules of
the institution, ib,; manual labour
of the pupils, 226 ; table of the rou-
tine of school business in the first
part of the fourth year, 229 ; table
of ditto in the second part of the
fourth year, 230; example of a
lesson in scripture history, 232;
museum for the pupils, ib,; conti-
nental labours for the instruction of
the deaf and dumb, 233 ; list of the
institutions in England, ib.

Denmark, periodical journals in, 364 ;
students at Kiel, t6. ; schools in the
kingdom of, ib.

Dorpat, in Livonia, state of the uni-
versity of, 359

Dublin, medical education in, account
of the state of, 297; medical pro-
fessor of the Dublin University, t6.;
College of Physicians in Ireland,
ib.; bequest of Sir Patrick Dun,
ib,; state of the surgical profession
in Ireland, 298; establishment of
the College of Surgeons there, 299 ;
examinations of candidates for the
diploma of the college, ib. ; account
of the Medical Faculty in the Dublin
University, 301 ; College of Physi-
cians in Ireland, present constitution
of, 302; its jurisdiction and pro-
fessors, 304; College of Surgeons
in Ireland, present constitution of,
305 ; half-yearly examinations, 306 ;
regulations with respect to candi-
dates for the diploma, 307 ; regula.
tions with respect to candidates for
the midwifery diploma, 309 ; ad-
vantages of Dublin for a school of
medicine, 310
Jan.— April, 1834.

Dublin University, officers for 1834,
192 ; list of honours at, 381

Durham School of Industry, founda-
tion of, 189

Durham University, donations towards
the foundation of, 183

Early education, observations on, 281 ;
almost universally in the hands of
females, 282; dawnings of reason
and first manifestations of desire to
be watched, 283; severe measures
unnecessary, 284 ; importance of
firmness, 287 ; choice and manage-
ment of domestics, 287; language
which ought to be spoken to chil-
dren, 289; choice of amusements
for them, ib.; teaching them the
practice of virtue, 290 ; advantages
of training them to implicit obedi-
ence, 291; remarks on obstinacy,
fretfulness, sullenness, and timidity,
292; attention to their health, 293;
regulation of the faculty of imagi-
nation, 294 ; general conclusions
drawn from the preceding obser-
vations, 295

Eastern Atheneum, London, establish-
ment of, 371

Educator, proposed establishment in
public seminaries of a teacher of
morality to be called the, 76

Egypt, Jews and Arabs in, 173

Emigration of children, advantages of,
276

France, act for regulating national
education in, 150; state of educa-
tion in Paris, 350 ; budget for the
university of, 16. ; prison discipline
in, ib. ; elementary education in,
352; courses of lectures in Paris,
ib.

Franklin, a table for the regulation
of life, according to the idea of,
74

Freiburg, canton of, in Switzerland,
353 ; students in the university of,
357

Gate, the, to the Hebrew, Arabic, and
Syriac, notice of, 134

G^eographical and statistical know-
ledge, observations on, 254, et seq, ;
statistics, definition of, 254 ; politi-
cal geography, description of, 254-5 ;
natural and artificial divisions of a
country, 255; object of political
geography, ib. ; navigable rivers,
256 ; manner in which the natural
elements of a country Influence the
inhabitants, 257; effects of climatie,

386

INDKX.

S58 ; maimer in whidi tbe oonfiga.
ration and bonndariea of a oonntrjr
inilaenoo its political condition, ib, ;
importance of a knowledge of the
IomI circomstances of a conutry,
S59; detoriptiont of the toilth of
Penia, many of them erroneooa,
800; political inttitutiont, 201;
Pmnia, how improved by a system
of popular education, ib. ; ought not
to be classed among despotic gorem-
ments, 262; the judicial system of
a country, ib. ; the munidpsJ system,
263 ; its influence in France, Spain,
Italy, and Turkey, 264 ; religious
opinions of a people, 267 ; their edu«
cation, 268 ; influence of languages,
269; sources of geographiod and
political information, 270; obsenra-
tions addressed to writers on foreign
countries, 271
Geography, on the study of, 81, e/
aeq. ; importance of appointing public
teadiers for, 82 ; suggestions for an
improved method of teaching, 83;
new geographical terms proposed,

Geometry without Axioms, review of,
106, et s^.

Geometry, Principles of, by the Rev.
W. Ritchie, notice of, 118

German High Schools, account of
the system of education pursued at
Bonn, 249. et teq. : table of the classes
and hours employed during the
week, 253 ; ordinance of the minister
of public instsuction for the regula-
tion of gymnasia, t6.

Gesenius, Dr. Wilhelm, German works
on the Hebrew language by, notice
of, 137. 141

Gipsies, account of the, in Brazil, 179

Glasgow Grammar School, statement
of the prc^ess of the classes, 381

Gosling, W., donation of to King's
College for completing the building,
372.

Gottingen, professors and students of
the university of, 161

Grammar, Dr. Philip Buttmann's
Larger Greek, notice of, 115

Graphic 3ociety, establishment of, 372

Greece, political election in, 17 1 ; state
of national education in, 365.

Halle, state of the university of, 363
Hamburg observatory, purchase of in-
^ struments for the, 158
Hampstead, formation of a public li-
brary at, 373.
Hayti, literary pursuits in, 176
Hebrew literature, recent publications

on, notice of, 134 ; Treatise on Lan-
guages, ib, ; The Gate to Hebrew,
•ft.; Walker's Practical Introduc-
tion to Hebrew, 136 ; Germau woriLS
on Hebrew by Dr, Wilhelm Gesenius,
137; Ewald's Hebrew Grammar,
139 ; Roorda's Hebrew Grammar and
Text-book, 140; Stier*s Hebrew
Grammar, 140 ; Josepha* s Hebrew
and English Lexicon, 141 ; Leo's
Hebrew Grammar, 143; Schroder
on Hebrew Nouns, 144; account
of some of the best recent trans-
lations of the Scriptures, both Eng-
lish and foreign, 144; notice of
other works in and on Hebrew, 148
Herodotus, edition by Alexander
Negris, notice of, 125; observa-
tions on the biography of, 125 ;
translator's emendations of> ex.
amined, 128
Holland, state of the universities in, 158
Hungary, unique village in, 163 ; state
of education in, 164

India, proceedings of different societies
and individuals for the education of
the natives o{,l\,et »eq. ; of the Pro-
testant Mission, the Court of Direc-
tors, the military chaplain at Madras,
the English chaplain at Palmoottah,
II ; of Sir Thomas Munro, 12; tabu-
lar view of the information furnished
by the collectors of the Madras pre-
sidency on the state of education in
that part of, 15 ; extracts from the
report of Mr. Campbell, one of the
Madras collectors, 16; Sir Thomas
Munro*s plan, and the consequent
proceedings of the Madras Com*
mittee, 19 ; proceedings at Bombay,
22 ; establishment of a school in
Prince of Wales's Island, 32 ; insti-
tution at Singapore founded by Sir
Thomas Raffles for the promotion of
Anglo- Chinese literature, 33 ; state-
ment of all the sums that have been
applied towards the education of the
natives of India from 1813 to 1830,
35

Interlinear translations, account of a
teacher's experience with respect to,
374

Inverness, proposal for establishing a
college at, 381

Jena, students in, 356

Josephs, Michael, a Hebrew and Eng-
lish Lexicon by, notice of, 141

Juvenile Vagrancy, Society for the
suppression of, account] o£f 272) et
seq. ; causes of juvenile vagrancy
ib. Ian of the society, 273 ;

INDKX.

387

some of its reflations, 274 ; in-
structions for the master, A, ; chil-
dren sent to tbe Cape of Good Hope,
276 ; advantagfes of tbe emigration
of childr«(n, 276; indenture which
those who receive the children
as apprentices are obliged to sign,
279 ; attention of the Society to the
OMnforts of the children, both at
home and during the voyage, 280 ;
advantage of establishing branch so-
cieties throughout the country, 281 ;
abstract of their report, 372

King*s College, donation to, for the
education of church missionaries,
371 ; donation to for completing the
building, 372

Kiow, in Russia, new organization of
the university of, 360

Kirghish execution and state of the
criminal law, 360

Languages, a treatise on, notice of,

134
Leek, Staffordshire, national school

about to be established at, 380
Leighton Buzzard, establislunent of a

library at, 380
Leipzig, state of the book trade in,

356
Lemberg, in Austria, students in the

university of, 358
Leo, Christopher, Hebrew Grammar

by, notice of, 143
Libraries of the Communes in France,

catalogues of the, required by the

Minister of Public Instruction, 153
Liguria, geographical description of,

314
Liverpool Blue Coat Hospital at, aoi*

count of, 376
Loison, the Abb^, fined and imprisoned

for whipping one of his pupils, 153
Lombardy, schools in Venice and, 166 ;

state oS elementarv instruction in,

169
London, Address to the Proprietors of

the University of, by J. M. Morgan,

Esq., notice of, 55, et *eq,
London Literary and Scientific Insti-
tution, state of, 374
London University, notice of the an-

nniil report of, 371

Madras, proceedings at, for the educar
kion of the natives in India, 19

Manchester Mechanics* Institute, ac-
count of, 376

Manchester and Salford District Pro-
vident Society, account of, 378

Manuscripts, &c., in the Royal Librai^
of France, 150

Menars, schools at, account of, 1, et »eq,;
the Prytaneum, course of education
at, 2 ; its situation, 4 ; "^discipline,
4 ; terms, 5 ; School of Arts and
Trades, course of instruction in, 6 ;
terms, 7 ; account of Prince Joseph
of Chimay, the founder oi the
schools, 8

Minchinhampton, in Gloucestershire
state of education in, 379

Moldavia and Wallachia, cultivation of
literature in, 172

Moi^an, J. M., Address by, to the Pro-
prietors of* the University of Lon-
don, review of, 55, et teq, ; obser-
vations on his opinions concerning
the giving of prizes at the Uni-
versity, 56 ; and on his proposed
establishment of a Professorship of
Education there, 61

Munich, state of public education in,
356

Munro, Sir Thomas, his e£fbrts to pro-
mote the education of the natives in
India, 12

National Education, questions sent by
the Home Secretary of State to the
overseers of the poor in every parish
throughout the kingdom, in order
to ascertain the state of, 186

National School Society, summary of
the 22d report of the, 184

Naval School, Royal, at Camberwell,
state of the, 183

Negris, Alexander, notice of a new
edition of Herodotus by, 125; life
of Herodotus by, very incorrect, 125

New California, some account of,
177

Oxford, on physical studies in the
university of, 47, et teq. ; paper cir-
culated there on the present system
of study, 48 ; remarks on the con-
tents of that paper, 49 ; necessity of
improvement in the existing system,
51

Oxford University, names of the can-
didates in Midiaehnas Term, 1833,
181 ; plan for promoting physical
studies rejected by the, 368

Parents, manner in which children
ought to be instructed by, 66

Paris, state of education in, 350 ; e.
courses of lectures in, 362

Pension List, French, literary men on
the, 150

2C2

388

INDEX.

Persia, south of, erroneoas descriptions
of. 260

Physical studies in the University of
Oxford, defects of, and proposed im-
provements in, 47) ft ttq,

Portugal, number of the clergy in, 155

Prizes given at the University of Lon-
don, observationa on, 56

Professorship of Education, proposed
establishment in the University of
London of a, 61

Prussia, schools in the Rhenish pro-
vinces of, 161 ; how improved by a
system of popular education, 261 ;
not to be classed among despotic
governments, 262; survey of the
superficial extent, population, ^.,
of, 361

Prytaneum at Menars, course of edu-
cation at, 2

Public instruction, observations on,
chiefly with regard to practical
moral education, 66, ei aeq, ; table,
as suggested by Franklin, for the
regulation of life, 74

Quetelet, M., elementary works by,
examination of, 347, et teq,; his
* Positions de Physique,' ' Physique
Populaire,* and 'Astronomie £16-
mentaire,' briefly described, 348

Raffles, Sir Thomas, his institution
at Singapore for the promotion of
Anglo%hinese literature, 33

Render, M., circumstances underwhich
he undertook to teach physics in the
College of Chambery, 77

RhsBtians, account of the, 166

Ritchie's, Rev. W., Principles of Geo-
metry, notice of, 1 18

Rome, suspension by the Pope of the
universities in, 168

Roorda, Hebrew Grammar by, notice
of, 140

Rugby School, course of instruction
pursued at, account of, 235| et teq.;
pupils and masters, 235; school,
hours, 236; table of the general
work of the school for a year, ib. ;
general examinations, 239 ; ex.
ercises in composition, ib.; exhi-
bitions and scholarships, ib, ; rea-
sons why the education is diiefly
classical, 240 ; practice of construing
Greek and Latin, absurdity of, 242 ;
advantages of exercising pupils in
• translation, 242; books on modem
history, with remarks on 'useful
information,* 245, et teq,

Russia, value of property in, 164 ; the

gymnasia in, 164 ; Univerafty* of
Kasan in, 165 ; state of in the
12th century, 166; private schools
in, 360

Russian literature, analyaia of a lifarary
at St. Petersburg, 359

Russian publications, number of, 104

St. Andrew% new regalations issued
by the university of, 191

Saxony, classification of- the religious
population of, 159

Silesia, schools in, 161

Spanish Morning Meetings, 154

Stier, Rudolf, work on Hebrew gram-
mar by, notice of, 141

Sweden, number of students in the
University of Lund, 364

Switzerland, general state of edocation
in, 353; law of public instruction
in Tessino, 354 ; abolition of the
University of Basle, 354

Syria, state of, with respect to educa-
tion, 365

Translations of the Scriptniea from
the Hebrew, account of some of the
best modem, English and foreign,
144

Treasury regulations for the appro-
priation of 20,000/. voted by parlia-
ment in aid of building schools for
the poorer classes in Great Britain, 79

Tiibingen, in Germany, students at,
358

United States, colleges in, 366; li-
braries in, di67

Valencia, population and schools of,

154
Venice, state of the Armenian monss-

tery of St. Lazarus at, 167 ; educs^

tion of the labouring classes in the

provinces of, 167
Vienna, university of, 162 ; lilnaries

in, 163; concerts in, 163

Walker, G. F., a Practical Introdnctioa

to Hebrew by, notice of, 136
Wellington, Imke of, elected Gbsn-

cellor of the University of Oxford,

368
Westminster School, Terence's 'Phor-

mio* represented at, 183; remarlcB

on, 371
Wolf, F. A., of Hainrode in Germany,

biography of, 355
Worsley, Major-Oen. Sir H., donation

of to King's College for educstion

of church missionaries, 371

INI>EX.

389

WUrtembergi state of popular feel-
ing with respect to education in^
357

Yorkshire Institution for the Instruc-
tion of the Deaf and Dumb, account
of, 189, 193, et teq,

Yorkshire School for the Blind, at-
tempts making to establish, 379

Zurich) account of the system of na-
tional education in the canton of,
97 ; l&^s and regulations of the
national schools in, 98 ; of the
higher schools in, 100 ; of the tech-
nical school in, 100; of the univer-
sity in, 101 ; extracts from the
report of the Council of Education
in, 102

END OF VOL. VII.

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