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TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

WORKS BY GEORGE LUNGE, Ph.D., Dr.Ing.

Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis. English Trans^

latum by Chas. Alex. Keanb, D.Sc, PIlD.

Vol. I., in Two Parts, royal Svo, lOM pp., not sold feparoMy.
Rectwtly puUUhed. Price £2, 12b. dd. net.

Vols. II. and 111. (each Volome sold separately). 7» active prqKtro-
tUm.

Technical Chemists* Handbooit. Tables and Methods of
Analysis for Manufacturers of Inorganic Chemical Pro-
ducts, being a thoroughly revised and extended edition
of Alkali Makers' Handbook^ indispensable for the Techni-
cal Chemist Recently published^ crown 8vo, 280 pp.,
bound in leather. Price lOs. 6d. net.

The Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali. A Theo-
retical and Practical Treatise.

Vol. 1.— Sulphuric Acid, in Two Parts, 1200 pp., not told teporotely.
Third ana much enlarged Edition. Price £2, 12s. 0a.

Vol. II.— Saltcake, Hydrochloric Acid, and Loblanc Soda,

1060 pp. Third and mnoh enlarged Bditlon. In T100 ParU, not
told Mporotely. Price £2, 28. net.

Vol. 111.— The Ammonla-3oda and various other Processes
of Alkali- Makinsr, 800 pp. Second Bditlon, Bevised and Bn«
larged. Price £2, 28.

Coal -Tar and Ammonia. Fourth and much Enlarged
Edition, I300 pp. In Two Parts ^ not sold separately.

Price £2, 2s. neU

Handbooit of Technical Gas-Analysis. By Clemens
Winkler, Ph.D. Translated by Professor Lunge.
Second English Edition. Price 10s. 6d.

LONDON : GURNEY & JACKSON, 10 PATERNOSTER ROW

TECHNICAL

CHEMISTS' Handbook-

TABLES AND METHODS OF ANALYSIS FOE

MANUFACTUEEBS OF INORGANIC CHEMICAL

PRODUCTS

BY GEOEGE LUNGE, Ph.D.

GURNEY AND JACKSON

lo PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
1910

/9/0

GENER/,

T? }5~\

ii.

PREFACE

In 1883 I published in German a collection of tables and
analytical methods for manufacturers of sulphuric acid, nitric
acid, soda, potash, and ammonia.

In 1884 an English edition of that work was published by me,
with the co-operation of the late Dr Ferdinand Hurter, under the
title, The Alkali Makers^ Pocketbook. A second, enlarged edition
was published by us in 1891 as ITie Alkali Makers* Handbook,
Subsequently a third, thoroughly revised German edition was
published by me, but the death of Dr Hurter, and lack of time on
my part, prevented the publication of a corresponding English
edition.

When the need of a further German edition arose, I resolved,
not merely, as in the past, to bring both the numerical data and
the analytical methods up to date, which meant replacing many
of the tables by new ones and changing a great part of the text,
but also to enlarge the scope of the book, so as to include a
number of additional important inorganic chemical industries.
New chapters were accordingly added, treatiog of feed-water for
boilers, of the manufacture of coal-gas, of calcium carbide and
acetylene, of the raw materials and products in the manufacture
of fertilisers, of aluminium salts and the manufacture of alumina,,
and of the manufacture of calcareous cements. In the prepara-
tion of this edition, I availed myself of the assistance of Dr
Berl.

The additions thus included, and the general revision of the
work, made it, to all intents and purposes, a new book, and the

197699

vi PREFACE

title of that Gknnaii book wsls accordingly changed to a Hcmdbook
for the Inorganic Chemical Indtutries,

It was natural that this book should also be offered to
English and American chemists, and this is done in the present
Handbook, Its aim, like that of its predecessor, The Alkali
Makers* ffa/ndbooky is to effect, as far as possible, the most
important task of establishing uniformity among practical
chemists, buyers and sellers, and analysts, in regard to both the
numerical data employed in their work and the analytical
methods used for the control of processes, and for the testing
of the resulting products.

The importance of making use of the most reliable numerical
data has been fully recognised in the preparation of this edition,
and all the analytical factors have been recalculated on the basis
of the atomic weights published by the International Committee
for 1908. Also, all the tables of specific gravities and other
tables have been selected from among the most recent and
reliable determinations.

In regard to the analytical methods, they are again chosen as
before, on the principle agreed to by the German Society of
Alkali Makers, that only one method should be given for each
analytical operation, as well as for the preparation of standard
solutions and for sampling the materials, in order to avoid
discrepancies such as might arise should two or more methods be
included. The method chosen should always, of course, be that
which permits the greatest degree of accuracy possible that can
be attained in a well-appointed works laboratory by a properly
trained chemist. In cases where there was a choice between
equally accurate methods, that occupying least time or least
apparatus, or which was already widely known and employed,
has been preferred. Many new methods have accordingly had
to be omitted, but in all cases such omission has been justified
by means of a careful examination of the relative merits of the
processes under consideration, and only such methods as were
found thoroughly reliable have been included. Also, a considerable
number of tables of specific gravities of solutions not previously

PREFACE vii

worked out, or which were unsatisfactory, have been very carefuUy
checked and extended.

Where necessary'-, reference is made to the more complete
treatment of the subject matter in my larger treatise, published
in Carman as ChemUch-techmMche UnUrsuchungsmetkoden (6th
edition, 3 vols., 1904-5). Of the English edition of this work,
edited by Dr Charles A. Eeane^ under the title Techmcal Methods
of Chemical Analym^ the first volume is now being published,
and is referred to in the text as Tech, Metk.

My special thanks are due to Dr Eeane for linguistically
revising the text of this English edition, a task which has been
rendered necessary through my absence from England for more
than thirty years.

The Author.

Zcrich, 1909.

CONTENTS

GENERAL TABLES

PAoa

Kote on Temperatures and Atomic Weights . ' . . 2

Table 1. International Atomic Weights ...... 8

„ 2. Symbols, Molecular Weights, and Percentage Composition of Oom-
pounds which are important in the Inoiganio Ohemical Indnstries

and in Technical Analysis ...... 4

,, A. Factors for calculating Oravimetric Analyses .... 12

„ 4. Density and Litre Weights of Gases and Vapoun ... 16
„ 5. Calculation of the c.e. read off in Gas-volumetric Analysis to milli-
grams of the substance required ..... 17

6. Solubility of Salts 18

„ 7. Solubility of other Salts at yarious Temperatures ... 19

„ 8. SolublUtyofGasesinWater 20

„ 9. Specific Graritles of Solids. ..*... 24

„ 10. Weight of Substances as Stored ...... 26

,, 11. Specific Gravity of Liquids 27

,, 12. Specific Gravity and Percentage of Saturated Solutions . . 27

„ 18. Linear Bzpanslon of Substances ...... 28

„ 14. Comparison of Thermometrlc Scales ..... 29

A. Celsius (Centigrade) Degrees as Unit .... 29

B. Ftihrenheit Degrees as Unit ...... SO

„ 16. Conversion of Centigrade into Fahrenheit Degrees above 100, and

Viet vena ......... 81

„ 16. Melting Points (Freezing Points) ...... 82

„ 17. Freezing Mixtures ........ 84

„ 18. Boiling Points 85

„ 19. High Temperatures as measured with Le Chatelier's Pyrometer 87

„ 20. I. Reduction of the Volume of Gases to a Temperature of 0° . 88

XL Seduction of the Volume of Gases to a Pressure of 760 mm. . 44
„ 21. Factors for reducing a given Volume of Gas to Normal Temperatures

and Pressures ........ 60

„ 21a. Volumes of Water at diflferent Temperatures .... 58

„ 22. Reduction of Water Pressure to Mercurial Pressure ... 58

„ 28. Tensions of Aqueous Vapour between -20 and +118* C. 54

„ 24. Tensions of Aqueous Vapour for Temperatures above +40° C. 55

„ 25. Tensions of Aqueous Vapour in Inches of Mexcury from 1 to 100° F. . 57

„ 26. Boiling Points of Water at diflbrent Barometric Pressures . 59
„ 27. Spedflc Heats :—

(a) Of Solids and Liquids ; (b) Of Gases and Vapours 59
,, 28. Heating BfliMts :—

(a) Definitions ; (h) of Fuels ; (c) of Oases . . » . 60

ix

CONTENTS

PAOB

Table 29. Air Gomproflsion ........ 61

IW. Bxplofiiye Mixtures of Oases and Air . 62 ^

81. Properties of the Liquefied Oases found in Commerce . 68^^-^

82. Blectrical Units ........ 64

88. Bleotro-chemical Bquiyalents ...... 64

84. Mathematical Tables : Circumference and Area of Circles, Squares,

Cubes, Square and Cube Boots ...... 66

86. FormulflB for Mensuration of Areas and Solid Contents ... 79

86. Weights and Measures of diiferent Countries .... 81

87. Reducing BngUsh to Metrical Weights and Measures, and vice versa 86

88. Weight of Sheet Metals 89

80. Coinage of diflbrent Countries ...... 90

>>
fi

ft

»»
It
tt
ti

SPECIAL PART

I. FUBL AKD FUBNAOSS:—

A. Fuel,—l, Moisture; 2. Residual Coke ; 8. Ash

4. Sulphur. ......

6. Calorific Power .....

B. J^'umooM.—l.^ Chimney Oases; Orsat Apparatus

Checking the Working of Furnaces
2. Oas from Producers (Oenerators)

Bstimation of Hydrogen by the Orsat-Lunge Apparatus
8. Speed of Draught ; Fletcher's Anemometer

Tables for using this .....

Seer's Difibrential Anemometer

C. Temperature.— Pyrometers .....

Le Chatelier's Pyrometer

Pyrometers Ibr the Highest Temperatures

D. Feed-%D<U«r for Steam Boilers, etc ....

1. Hardness.— (a) Temporary ....

(&} Total ; (c) Residue on Bvaporation
Bstimation of the Reagents required for Purifying Water

II. BULPHUBIO Acn> MAHUrAOTURB :~

A. Brimstone.— 1, Moisture; 2. Bituminous Substances ; 8. Ashes

4. Arsenic ........

6. Direct Bstimation of Sulphur ....

Specific Oravities of Solutions of Sulphur in Carbon Bisulphide
6. Selenium; 7. Degree of Fineness

B. £^en( Oxide etf Gat-fPorJu, See " Ooal-Oas " (p. 220)

0, Pyrites,—!, HoistJiie; 2. Sulphur. ....

8. Copper ........

4. Lead; 5. Zinc; 6. Carbonates; 7. Arsenic
D. Burnt Pyrites (jCHnders).—!. Sulphur; 2. Copper; 8. Iron
B. Zine Blende.— 1, Total Sulphur ; 2. Zinc

8. Lead; 4. Lime and Magnesia ....

6. Arsenic ; 6. Carbon dioxide ; 7. Available Sulphur
F. Cinders from Blende.— 1, Sulphur ; 2. Zinc
O. Gases.— 1. Burner Oas : (a) Bstimation of SO2 by Reich's Test .
(P) Total Adds

2. Chamber Oases ; 8. Chamber Bxit Oases : (a) Oxygen

(b) Sulphur and Nitrogen Acids ....

(c) Nitric Oxide . . . ...

95

96

97

97

90

99

100

101

102

104

104

105

106

106

106

107

107

108
108
108
109
109
100
110
111
112
118
114
115
115
116
116
117
117
118
120

CONTENTS

XI

II. Sulphuric Aoid IfANurAcruRx — Continued:— page

H. SviphvHe Add ........ 120

1. Spedfic Giavittes of Bulpharic Acid ; Oeneral Bemarlu . .120
Tables.— Spedflc Giavity of Salpharic Acid at (XT F. 121

2. Table Ibr radnclng the Specific Orayities of Salphurlc Acid to

any other Tempeiatore . . . . .126

8. Specific Oiavitiea of Commercial Nordhaosen Oil of Vitriol . 180

4. Specific Gravities and Percentage of Nordhansen Oillof Vitriol

at difibrent Temperatures ...... 181

5. Freezing and Melting Points of Sulphuric Acid . . .182

6. Boiling PolBts of Sulphuric Add ..... 182

7. Fusing Points of Nordhausen Oil of Vitriol . .188

8. Percentage of SOs in Nordhausen Oil of Vitriol . .184

9. The Quantitative Estimation of Free Sulphuric Acid 185

10. Bxaminatian of Sulphuric Acid for other Substances 185

(a) Nitious Add (Nitrososulphuric Add) .185
(5) Total Nitrogen Adds; Nitrometer .... 186

Table for expressing the Results . .187

Gas-volumeter ....... 180

(c) Relative Proportions of the Three Nitrogen Adds . . 141

(cO Qualitative Test for Traces of Nitrogen Adds . 141

(e) Selenium; (/)Lead; (9) Iron; (ft) Arsenic; (i) Chlorides 142

11. Analysis of Fuming Sulphuric Add (Nordhausen Oil of Vitriol)

and of Sulphuric Anhydride ..... 148

III. Saltcaub and Hydbochlorio Acid:—

A. Salt (fiommon and Rock Salt) ...... 145

1. Moisture; 2. Insoluble; 8. Chlorine . . . .145
4. Lime ; 5. Sulphates ; 6. Magnesium Chloride . . .146

B. SaltcdkeiSnlphateqfSoda).—!. Free Acid; 2. Sodium Chloride . 146
8. Iron ; 4. Residue; 5. Lime; 6. Magnesia . . .147

7. Alumina ; 8. Sodium Sulphate . . .147

C. Cftimney-Testin^.- Act of Parliament ..... 147

Hydrochloric Acid in Chimney Gases ..... 148

D. Tutingof the GauB in the Hargreaves Process . . .149
B. Hydrochloric Add.—l. Spedflo Gravities at 15" . . . 150

2. Influence of Temperature on the Specific Gravity . . 151

8. Analysis of Hydrochloric Acid : (a) Bstimation of HCl . . 151

(b) Of Sulphuric Acid ; (c) Iron ; (d) Free Chlorine . . 152
(e) Sulphur Dioxide ; (/) Arsenic . .... 152

IV. Blsachino Powdsb and Chlobatb or Potash Manofacturb:—

A. Natural Manganese Ore.— 1. Manganese Dioxide

2. Carbon Dioxide .....

8. Hydrochloric Acid required for Decomposing the Ore

B. Recovered Manganese Mud and Weldon Liquors .

1. Mn02 in Weldon Mud ; 2. Total Manganese in the Mud
8. Bstimation of the Base (the Monoxides) .

C. Limestone,—!. Insoluble; 2. Lime

8. Magnesia; 4. Iron .....

D. Quidklime.— 1. Free CaO ; 2. Carbon Dioxide
B. Slaked Lime,— I. Water; 2. Carbon Dioxide ; 8. Specific Gravities

Amount of Lime in Milk of Lime ....

158
158
154
154
154
155
155
156
156
156
157

XI 1

CONTENTS

IV. Bliachiho Powdbb, WTC.—CotUinued :^ faqu

F. Bleadiing Powdtr.—l. AvsUable Chlorine . . . .167

8. Oompuiaon of the Feroentages with the Fieneh (Oay-LnaMC)
Degrees ........ 158

8. Oarbon Dioxide, Lunge and Bittener's Piooeas . . .168

4. Testing the Atmosphere of the Ohambenbelbra opening them . 169

O. i>MconJPfooen.~l. Proportion of HGl and 01 in the Gases 160

8. Carbon Dioxide ; 8. Steam ...... 180

H. EUetrolftie Chlorine Examination for COg . . . .161

I. ChloraU of Potash .168

1. Chlorate Liquors : (a) Chlorate ; (6) Chloride . . .162

8. Commercial Chlorate of Potash ..... 162

K. BUach Liquors ........ 168

L. Liquid Oi^torine.— Pressure and Speciflo Oiavittes . . .168

V. Soda Ash Manufacturb by thb Lbblano Pbocbss:—

A. Rata Materials ........ 164

(a) Saltcake ; (jb) Limestone or Chalk ; (c) Mixing Coal 164

B. Black-Ash 164

1. Tests made with the Mutldy Mixture :—

(a) Free Lime; (5) Total Lime ..... 165

2. Tests made with the Clear Portion :—

(a) Available Alkali and Sodium Carbonate . . .166

(jb) Caustic Soda ; (c) Sulphide ; (d) Chloride ... 166
(e) Sulphate; (/) Carbonated Sample .... 166

C. TankWasUiVatWasU) — 1. AvaUableSoda . . . .167

2. Total Soda; 8. Total and Oxidlzable Sulphur . .167

D. Tank Liquor (Vat Liquor).— 1. Sodium Carbonate . . .168

8. Hydrate ; 8. Sulphide ; 4. Sulphate ; 5. Total Sulphur . 168

6. Chloride; 7. Ferrocyanide ...... 168

8. Silica, Alumina, Ferric Oxide 160

9. Carbonated Sample ....... 169

B. CarZN>iMUed liquor.— Test for Bicarbonate .... 169

Lunge and Rittener's Process for estimating CO2 . 169

F. Mother JAquor.—(a) Sulphate ; (b) Other Compounds of Sulphur . 171

G. Tables df Specific Gravities :—

1. Specific Orayities of Solutions of Sodium Carbonate at 16' C. . 172

2. Specific Gravities of Concentrated Solutions of Sodium Carbonate

at80°C . . .178

8. Influence of Temperature on the Specific Gravities of Solutions

of Sodium Carbonate ...... 174

H. Analysis of Ckmmercial Soda Ash ...... 176

Table for comparing French, German, and English Commercial

Alkalimetrical Degrees ...... 177

1. Sulphur Becavsry (Chance Process) ...... 180

1. Sulphur as Sulphides in Vat Waste ..... 180

2. Sulphur as Sulphides in Carbonated Mud .... 180
8. Sulphide-Sulphur + CO2 in Vat Waste .... 180

4. Sulphur in Solutions ....... 181

5. Soda, Lime, and Thiosulphate in Liquors . . . .181

6. Lime-kiln Gases ....... 181

7. Gas from Gas-holder ....... 182

8. Exit Gases from Clans Kilns ...... 182

CONTENTS

Xlll

VI. MAWrACTUBM OF SODA BT THB AMMONIA PBOCfeBB :— - PAOB

A. Raw MaUrUUs,-'!, Rook Bait; 2. Brine. .... 188

8. Oas Liquor or Sulphate of Ammonia . .188

4. limestone: ft. QolcUime; 6. GoalaeOoke .188

B. Tests foade dwring tlu Manv/actwring Proeeti :-'

1. Ammoniacal Brine : (a) Ghloridea ..... 188
(b) Ammonia, Free and Combined ..... 184

2. Carbonaton ; 8. Mother Liquor ; 4. Crude Bicarbonate 184
6. Distillation of Ammonia ; 6. Lime>kiln Oases . . . 184

C. Cominereial Produete.— 1. Soda Ash ; 2. Commercial Bicarbonate . 184

VII. Caustic Soda :—

1. Caustic lAquor.-ia) Available Alkali 184

(b) Table of Specific Gravities of Sodium Hydroxide at 15* C. . 186

(e) Influence of Temperature <m the Specific Gravities of Caustic

Soda 188

2. Lime Mvd.—^a) Sodium as Carbonated Hydrate . . . .190

(Jb) Caustic Lime ; (e) Calcium Carbonate . . . .190

8. Fished Salts: 4. Caustic Bottoms ...... 190

6. Commercial Caustic Soda ....... 191

VIII. Blsctrolttic Alkalihs Liquobs:—

1. Hypochlorites ; 2. Free Hypochlorous Acid ; 8. Chlorate . . 191

4. Chloride; 5. Carbon Dioxide ; 6. Bases; 7. Free Alkali . . 192

IX. NiTBio AoiD Manufactubb :—

A. Commercial Nitrate of Soda : —

General Bemarks ; Befiraustion ; Sampling

1. Moisture ; 2. Insoluble ; 8. Sodium Nitrate

4. Sulphate; 6. Chloride; 6. Iodine ....

7. Potassium; 8. Perchlorate .....

B. Nitre-^JaJcc-^l, Free Acid; 2. Nitric Acid

8. Ferric Oxide and Alumina .....

C. NUrie Acid,—!. Specific Gravity of Nitric Acid at 15* C.

2. Influence of Temperature on the Specific Gravity of Nitric Acid
8. Total Acidity ; 4. Chlorine; 6. Sulphuric Acid .

6. Nitrous Acid or Nitrogen Tetroxide ; 7. Fixed Bestdue .
8. Iron; 9. Iodine ......

D. Mixtwres oJSvlphwric Add and Nitric Acid.— I. Total Acidity

2. Nitrous Acid ; 8. Nitrogen Acids ; 4. Sulphuric Acid .

198
198
194
194
195
195
196
199
201
201
201
202
202

X. Potassium Salts: —

A. Crude Salts (CanuOlite, KainUe, etc.) ..... 208

1. Moisture ........ 208

2. Percentage of Potassium :~

(a) In the Absence of more than 0*5% Potassium Sulphate . 208

(b) In the Presence of more than 0*5% Potassium Sulphate . 208
8. Percentage of Sodium Chloride ; 4. Magnesium Chloride . . 204
5. Total Magnesium ....... 205

B. Commercial Potassium Chloride . , . . . . 205

G. Potassium Sulphate ........ 205

"D. Leblane Process for the Manufa(^ure of Potassium Carbonate . . 205

£. BeetAehes ......... 205

XIV,

CONTENTS

Total

X. Potassium Salts— ContiniMd :~

F. CkmmtriAal C!aThonat€ of Potcuh .....

1. Specific GnvltteB of Solatioiui of Potassium Cartwnate at 16*

2. Influence of Temperature on the Specific Grayitiea
8. Specific Giavities of Solutions of Potassium Hydroxide .

XI. Ammonia Manufaotubb :—

A. GaS'Liqwyr.—l. Volatile Ammonia; S. Total Ammonia ; 8

Sulphur .....

4. Thiocyanate .....

B. Sviphate o/Afnmonia. — Estimation of Ammonia

G. Liquor AnmonicB . . . • ,

1. Specific Gravities of Solutions of Ammonia

2. Specific Gravities of Solutions of Ammonium Carbonate

XI ]. Manufactubb of Coal-Gas (Illuminatiko Gas): —

A. Coal-Gas. — Apparatus ; Notes on the Bunte Burette

Taking Samples ; Measuring the Gas in the Burette

Introduction of the Absorbing Liquids .

1. Carbon Dioxide ; 2. Heavy Hydrocarbons

8. Oxygen ; 4. Carbon Moncndde

6. Hydrogen ....

6. Methane; 7. Nitrogen

B. Purifying Material (Spent Oxide).— 1, Cyanogen ; 2. Sulphur

XIII. Calcium Cabbids and Acbtylbnbi—
A. Bow Materialt ; B. Technical Caldwn Carbide .

XIV. Examination of thb Raw Matbbials and Products of thb Manu

FACTUBB OF FbBTILISBBS :—

A. Sampling/ B. Moisture .....
C. The Insoluble Matter : D. Phosphoric Acid .

1. Preparation of the Solutions ....

(a) Phosphates Soluble in Water .
(p) Phosphates Soluble in Ammonium Citrate .
(e) Total Phosphoric Acid ....
(d) Thomas-Slag Phosphates

2. Examination of the Solutions : (a) For Phosphoric Acid

(a) Molybdenum Method ; (/3) Citrate Method .
E. Free Acid; F. Ferric Oxide and Alumina
G. Nitrogen.—!. Nitric Nitrogen ; 2. Ammoniacal Nitrogen

8. Total Nitrogen . .....

4. Oq^ic Nitrc^en .....
H. Potash .......

XV.

Alumina Pbbpabations : —

A. Raw Materials.—!, Kaolin (China Clay) ; 2. Bauxite .

B. Control of Working Conditions ....
G. Commercial Products,— !. Sulphate of Alumina and Alum

(a) Estimation of Alumina ....

(b) Iron, Lunge and Ruler's Method

(c) Free Acid ; (d) Zinc ....
2. Alumlnate of Soda : (a) Soda and Alumina

(b) Insoluble ; (e) Silica ....
8. Commercial Alumina . • • . .

PAOB

SOS

S07

210
212

215
216
217
218
219
220

220
221
222
222
222
228
224
225

226

227
228
228
228
228
228
220
220
220
280
281
281
282
282

282
288
288
288
284
285
285
286
285

CONTENTS XV

XVI. Cmmmxtt Ivdubtry :— paoi

A. Portland Cement.— 1, Bow MaUrUUs. (a) Limwtone ; (b) OU7 . 216

Campbell's Analysis :—

1. Decomposing by means of Alkaline Oarbonate SM

S. AlkaUes ; 8. Solphor tt7

4. Oarbon Dioxide ; 6. Loss of Weight . . , . tt7
(e) Separation of Silica present as QnartSi and such present In the

form of Silicates U7

Frooess of Lunge and Hillberg ...... tt7

S. Control qf Working Condition* S88

8. Commercial Cement.^a) Silica ; (5) Alumina + Ferric Oxide . S88

(e) Ferric Oxide 888

(d) Lime; (e) Magnesia; (/) Sulphates .... 880

(g) Total Sulphur ; (ft) AlkaUes ; (0 Physical Tests . . 889

B. Hydranlic Lime and Boman Cement ..... 889

C. Pwszuokmae, Traee, Granulated BloMt-Fumaee Slag • 889

XVII. Preparation of Standaro Solutiohs :—

Jntrodactoiy ......... 889

1. Normal Add and Alkali 841

Indicators 242

Standard Alkali 248

Oorrections for Temperature ...... 244

2. Potassium Permanganate ....... 244

8. Iodine Solution ........ 245

4. Sodium Arsenite Solution ; 6. Silver Solution . . .246

6. Oopper Solution ; 7. Oxalic Add Solution . . .247

XVIII. BuiiRS FOR Bampluio :—

A. Fuel 247

B. Ores and Minerale (Pyritee, Mangameee, Salt, etc.) . . ,247

(a) Smalls, Slack, Salt, or other Substances not requiring to be
Crushed . . . . . . . . 248

(b) Ores in Pieces requiring to be Crushed .... 248
0. CftemiooZc.— Saltcake, Soda Ash ; Bleaching Powder .249

Caustic Soda; Solid Sulphuric Anhydride .... 260

XIX. COMPABIBON OF THB HTDROnmt DBORXaS AOOORDINO TO BaUM^

ARD TWADDILL, WITH THB SpCCIFIC ORAYITIIS . • • 261

XX. Valus OF Alxau pbr Tor ....... 868

IMDBX 867

GENERAL TABLES

NOTE

All Umpsraturat are given in degrees Centigrade,
unless otherwise stated.

The atomic wnghU are those adopted by the Inter-
national Committee on Atomic Weights for the year
1909, as given in Table No. 1 referred to. Oxygen
= 16.

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS

3

TABLB 1.— INTBRNATIONAL ATOBdC WEHQHTS

According to the Table issued by the International Committee

on Atomic Weights for 1909.

Ai

Aluminium

. 27-1

Nd

Neodymium

. 144*8

Sb

Antimony

. 120-2

Ne

Neon

. 20

Ar

Argon .

. 89-9

Ni

Nickel .

. 58*68

As

Arsenic

. 76-0

Nb

Niobium

. 98*6

Ba

Barium

. 137-37

N

Nitrogen

. 14*01

Be

Beryllium

. 9-1

Os

Osmium

. 190-9

Bi

Bismuth

. 208-0

O

Oxvgen .
Palladium

. 16-00

B

Boron .

. 11-0

Pd

. 106*7

Br

Bromine

. 79-92

P

Phosphorus

. 81*0

Cd

Cadmium

. 112-40

Pt

Platinum

. 195-0

Cs

Caesium

. 132-81

K

Potassium

. 39-10

Ca

Calcium

. 40*09

Pr

Praseodymiui

m . 140-6

C

Carbon

. 12-00

Ra

Radium.

. 226-4

Ce

Cerium

. 140-26

Rh

Rhodium

. 102-9

01

Chlorine

. 35-46

Rb

Rubidium

. 86*46

Or

Chromium

. 62-1

Ru

Ruthenium

. 101-7

Co

Cobalt .

. 58-97

Sm

Samarium

. 150-4

Cu

Copper

. 63-57

Sc

Scandium

. 44*1

Dy

Dysprosium

. 162-5

Se

Selenium

. 79-2

Er

Erbium

. 167-4

Si

Silicon .

. 28-3

Eu

Europium

. 152-0

Ag

Silver .

. .. 107-88

F

Fluorine

. 19-0

nI

Sodium .

. 28-00

Gd

Gadolinium

. 157-8

Sr

Strontium

. 87*62

Ga

GaUium

. 69-9

S

Sulphur .

. 32-07

Ge

Germanium

. 72-5

Ta

Tantalum

. 181*0

Au

Gold .

. 197-2

Te

Tellurium

. 127-5

He

Helium

. 4-0

Tb

Terbium

. 159-2

H

Hydrogen ,

. 1-008

Tl

Thallium

. 204-0

In

Indium

. 114-8

Th

Thorium

. 232-42

I

Iodine .

. 126-92

Tu

Thulium

. 168-5

Ir

Iridium

. 193-1

Sn

Tin

. 119-0

Fe

Iron

. 56-85

Ti

Titanium

. 48-1

Kr

Krypton

. 81-8

W

Tungsten

. 184-0

La

Lanthanum .

. 139-0

U

Uranium

. 288-5

Pb

Lead .

• 207-10

V

Vanadium

. 51-2

Li

Lithium

. 7-00

X

Xenon .

. 128

Mg

Magnesium .

. 24*82

Yb

Ytterbium .

. 172

Mn

Manganese .

. 54*93

Y

Yttrium

. 89-0

Hg

Mercury

. 200-00

Zn

Zinc

. 66*37

Mo

Molybdenum

I .96*0

Zr

Zirconium

. 90*6

THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

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8 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS" HANDBOOK

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12 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 8.— FAOTORS FOR 0AL0ULATIN6

Sabstance Weighed.

Sabstance to be determined.

1.

Ammonluiu.
Ammonium chloride; NH4CI .

Ammonium platinum chloride,
(NH4)2PtCle ....

Arsenic.
Arsenic trisulphide, AS2S3

Ammonium magnesium arsenate,
Mg(NH4)As04+4aq. .

Barium*
Barium sulphate, BaSOji .
Barium carbonate, BaCOs
Barium silicofluoride, BaSiF^ .

Oalcium.

Calcium sulphate, CaS04 . "i

Calcium carbonate, CaCOs . /

Oarbon.
Barium carbonate, BaCOs
Calcium carbonate, CaCOs
Carbon dioxide, COg

OMorine.

saver chloride, AgCl

Copper.
Cupric oxide, CuO .

Cuprous sulphide, Cu^S .

Hydrogen.
Water, H2O .

Iron.
Ferric oxide, FegOs .

1

{

Ammonia NH3
Ammonium oxide(NH4)aO
Ammonia, NHg
Nitrogen N . . .

Arsenic, As . . .
Arsenic trioxide, AsgOg .
Arsenic anhydride, AS2O5
Arsenic, As . . .
Arsenic trioxide, AsoOg .
Arsenic anhydride,' AsgOs

fBaO

Barium oxide, -^ BaO

[BaO

Calcium oxide, | ^q

Carbon dioxide, COg
Carbon dioxide, CO2
Carbon, C

Chlorine, CI . . .
Chloric anhydride, CLOg
Potassium chloride, KCl.
Sodium chloride, NaCl .
Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Copper, Cu
Copper, Cu
Cupric oxide, CuO .

Hydrogen, H .

Iron, Fe .
Ferrous oxide, FeO

0-3184
0-1174
0-0768
0-0632

0-6093
0-8043
0-9343
0-3939
0-5198
0-6039

0-6571
0-7771
0-5483

0-4120
0-5604

0-2229
0-4896
0-2727

0-2472
0-5262
0-5203
-4080
0-2543

0-7990
0-7987
0-9996

0-1119

0-6996
0-8999

FACTORS FOR GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSES 13

GRAVIMBTRIO ANALYSES.

log

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0-50297-1
0-06967 - 1
0-88536-2
0-80072-2

0-6367
0-2348
0-1536
0-1263

0-9551
0-3523
0-2304
0'1895

1-2736
0-4697
0-3072
0-2527

1-5919
0-5871
0-3840
0-3168

1-9102
0-7045
0-4608
0-8790

2-2286
0-8219
0-5376
0-4422

2-6470
0*9394
0-6144
0-5053

2-8663
1-0668
0-6912
0-5685

0-78483-1

, 0-90542-1

'0-97049-1

1 0-59539 - 1

0-71584-1

0-78097-1

1-2186
1-6086
1-8686
0-7878
1-0396
1-2077

1-8279
2-4129
2-8028
1-1817
1-6695
1-8116

2-4372
3-2172
3-7371
1-5766
2-0793
2-4165

3-0466
4-0216
4-6714
1-9695
2-6991
3-0194

8-6559
4-8257
6-6057
2-3634
3-1189
3-6232

4-2652
6-6800
6-5400
2-7673
3-6387
4-2271

4-8745.

6-4343

7-4742

3-1512

4-1686

4-8809

5-4838
7-2386
8-4086
8-5451
4-6784
5-4348

0-81763-1
0-89048-1
0-73902-1

1-3141
1-5542
1-0966

1-9712
2-3313
1-6448

2-6283
3-1084
2-1930

3-2864
3-8856
2-7413

3-9424
4-6626
3-2896

4-5996
6-4397
3-8378

5-2566
6-2168
4-3860

5-9136
6-9939
4-9343

0-61490-1
0-74850-1

0-8240
1-1209

1-2360
1-6813

1-6480
2-2418

2-0601
2-8022

2-4721
3-3626

2-8841
3-9281

3-2961
4-4836

3-7081
5-0440

0-34811-1
0-64306 - 1
0-43569 - 1

0-4458
0-8791
0-5455

0-6687
1-3187
0-8182

0-8916
1-7682
1-0909

1-1145
2-1978
1-8687

1-3374
2-6374
1-6364

1-6603
3-0769
1-9091

1-7832
3-5166
2-1818

2-0061
3-9660
2*2546

1

' 0-39305 - 1
0-72115-1
0-71625 - 1

10-61066-1
0-40535-1

0-4944
1-0624
1-0406
0-8160
0-5086

0-7416
1-5787
1-5609
1-2240
0-7628

0-9887
2-1049
2-0812
1-6320
1-0171

1-2369
2-6311
2-6015
2-0401
1-2714

1-4831
3-1673
3-1218
2-4481
1-6257

1-7308
3-6885
8-6421
2-8661
1-7800

1-9774
4-2098
4-1624
3-2641
2-0342

2-2246
4-7360
4-6827
3-6721
2-2885

0-9O255-1
0-9O238-1
0-99983-1

1-5980
1-5974
1-9992

2-3970
2-3961
2-9989

3-1960
3-1948
3-9986

3-9950
3-9935
4-9981

4-7939
4-7921
5-9977

5-5929
5-5908
6-9973

6-3919
6-3895
7-9970

7-1909
7*1882
8-9966

0-04883-1

0-2238

0-3357

0-4476

0-6596

0-6714

0-7833

0-8962

1-0071

0-84485 - 1
0-95419 - 1

1-3993
1-7997

2-0989
2-6996

2-7986
3-6996

3-4982
4-4994

4-1978
5-3992

*4-8974
6-2991

6-6970
7-1990

6-2967
8-0988

14 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 3-

Substanoe Weighed.

Iiead.
Lead monoxide, PbO

Lead sulphate, PbS04

Lead sulphide, PbS .
Lead, Pb .

Sabstance to be detennined.

1.

{
{

Mafirnesium.
Magnesium pyrophosphate, MggPsO?
Magnesium sulphate, MgS04 .

Manganese.
Mangano-manganic oxide, Mn304

Manganese sulphide, MnS

Nitrogen.
Ammonium platinum chloride,

(NHJaPtCle ....
Platinum, Pt . . . .

{

Lead, Pb

Lead, Pb

Lead oxide, PbO

Lead, Pb

Lead oxide, PbO

Lead oxide, PbO

Magnesium oxide, MgO .
Magnesium oxide, MgO .

Manganese, Mn
Manganese, Mn
Manganous oxide, MnO .

Phosphorus.
Magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg2P207

Potassium.
Potassium chloride, KCl .
Potassium - platinum chloride,

ICPtCL (reduction factors -

aaopted at Stassftirt) .
Potassium sulphate .

Sodium.
Sodium sulphate, Na^04
Sodium carbonate, NagCOs
Sodium chloride, NaCl .

Sulphur.

Barium sulphate, BaS04

Zinc.
Zinc oxide, ZnO

Zinc sulphide, ZnS •

Nitrogen, N
Nitrogen, N

r Phosphorus, P

\ Phosphorus pentoxide,

[ P2O5

Potassium oxide, KgO .
Potassium oxide
Potassium chloride .
Potassium sulphate
Potassium oxide

Sodium oxide, NagO
Sodium oxide, NagO
Sodium oxide, NagO

Sulphur, S . . .
Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Sulphur trioxide, SOo
Sulphuric acid, H«S04 .
Sodium sulphate, Na2S04

Zinc, Zn ....
Zinc, Zn ....
Zinc oxide, ZnO

0*9282
0*6829
0-7357
0-8668
0*9328
1*0773

0-3624
0-3352

0-7205
0*6318
0-8165

0-0632
0-1438

0-2784
0-6376

0*6320
1-1931
0*3056
0*3671
0-5408

0-4368
0*6863
0-5308

0*1373
0-2744
0*3429
0*4201
0*6089

0-8034
0*6710
0*8352

FACTORS FOR GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSES 16

Jontimud.

log

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0-96764 - 1
0-88486 - 1
0-86670 - 1
0-93742 - 1
0-96979 - 1
0-03234

1-8564
1-3659
1-4715
1-7317
1-8656
2-1547

2-7847
2-0488
2-2072
2-5975
2-7984
3-2320

8-7129
2-7317
2-9430
8-4633
3-7312
4-3093

4-6411
3-4147
3-6787
4-3292
4-6640
5-3867

5-5698
4-0976
4-4144
5-1950
5-5967
6-4640

6-4975
4-7805
5-1502
6-0608
6-5295
7-5413

7-4258
5-4634
5-8859
6-9266
7-4623
8-6186

8-3540
6-1464
6-6217
7-7925
8-3951
9-6960

0-55919 - 1
0-52530 - 1

0-7249
0-6708

1-0878
1-0055

1-4497
1-3406

1-8122
1-6758

2-1746
2-0110

2-5370
2-3461

2*8994
2-6813

3-2619
8-0164

0-85763 - 1
0-80058 - 1
0-91142 - 1

1-4410
1-2635
1 -6311

2-1616
1-8953
2-4466

2-8821
2-5270
3-2621

3-6026
3-1588
4-0777

4-3231
3-7905
4*8982

5-0436
4-4223
5-7087

5-7642
5-0540
6-5242

6-4847
5-6858
7-3398

0-80072-2
0-15776 - 1

0-1263
0-2877

0-1895
0-4315

0-2527
0-5754

0-3159
0-7192

0-8790
0-8630

0-4422
1-0069

0-5054
1-1507

0-5685
1-2946

0-44467 - 1

0-5568

0-8351

1-1135

1-3919

1-6703

1 -9487

2-2270

2-5054

0-80455 - 1

1-2751

1-9127

2-5503

3-1879

3-8254

4-4630

5-1006

5-7381

0-80072-1
0-28578 - 1
0-48515 - 1
0-65279 - 1
0-73304-1

1-2641
0-3862
0-6112
0-7142
1-0817

1-8961
0-5793
0-9168
1-0713
1 -6225

2-5282
0-7724
1-2224
1 -4284
2-1634

3-1602
0-9655
1-5280
1-7855
2-7042

3-7922
1-1586
1 -8386
2-1426
3-2450

4-4243
1-3517
2-1392
2-4997
8-7859

6-0563
1 -5448
2-4448
2-8568
4-3267

5*6884
1-7379
2-7504
3-2139
4-8676

0-64028 - 1
0-76738 - 1
0-73493 - 1

0-8737
1-1706
1-0615

1-8105
1-7559
1 -5923

1-7473
2-3412
2-1231

2-1842
2-9265
2-6539

2-6210
3-5118
3-1846

3-0578
4-0971
3-7154

3-4946
4-6824
4-2462

3-9315
5-2677
4-7769

0-80465 - 1
0-13767 - 1
0-43838 - 1
0-53517 - 1
0-78455 - 1

0-2747
0-5488
0-6859
0-8402
1-2179

0-4120
0-8232
1-0288
1-2603
1-8268

0-5493
1-0976
1-3717
1-6804
2-4357

0-6867
1-3720
1-7147
2-1005
3-0447

0-8240
1-6463
2-0576
2-5206
3-6536

0-9613
1 -9207
2-4005
2-9407
4-2625

1 -0986
2-1951
2-7434
3-3608

4-8714

1-2360
2-4695
8-0864
3-7809
5-4804

0-90493-1
0-8-2«72 - 1
0-92179 - 1

1-6069
1-8421
1-6704

2-4103
2-0131
2-5056

3-2138
2-6842
3-3408

4-0172
3-3552
4-1761

4-8206
4-0262
5-0113

5-6241
4-6973
5-8465

6-4275
5-3683
6-6817

7-2310
6-0394
7-5169

16

THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

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18 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

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55

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SOLUBILITY OF SALTS

■

i

5

S9-1

77'-S
103-3
154
0-17

73

68-6

66

178
246
24-1

45-1
204

39-12
340
175-5

42-7

62-3
266
615

78-6

i

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i
3

40-4

27

41-4

78 '0
102-7
0-210

58

40-9

10-1

37-3
128

45-9

18-6

11-1

40-9
111

86-03
119

96-2

40
3-9

S4-7
435

'

3

31*3
11-9
297
70-6
59-5

0-176
52-8
26-0

3-3

97
13-8

7-4

6-9

7-1
82

86 -68
42
73

5-0

1-1
52-5
208
41-9

i

1

1

i . . .

Ammonium sulphate

bicarbonatt
chloride

Calcium chlori^ .
sulphate ,
Magnesium chloride
sulphate

chloride
hydroxide

sulphat^

carbonate,
chlorate .
chloride .

hydroxide
nitrate .

tetraborate (bo
thiosulphate
Zinc chloride. .
sulphate

TABLE 8.— SOLUBILITY OP GASBS IN WATER.

Column a gives the volume of gas (reduced to 0° and 760 mm.) dissolved by one
volume of the liquid at the temperature indicated, if the partial pressure of the gas
is = 760 mm. Hg.

Ck)lumn q gives the weight of the substance in grams, dissolved by 100 gr. of the
pure solvent, if the partial pressure of the gas + the vapour pressure of the liquid at
the temperature indicated =760 mm. Hg.

The letters following the name of the gas indicate the observer, viz., W. = Winkler;
B. & B.= Bohr & Bock; P.=Fauser; R.=Raoult; 8.=Sch5iifeld; R.-D. = Rosooe-
DIttmar; B.=Roozeboom; B.=Ban8en.

m

Oxygen, W.

Hydrogen, W.

Nitrogei

1, B. & B.

Chlorine, W.

T,

a.

Q-

a.

Q-

a.

5-

a.

Q-

•04890

•006948

•02148

•0001922

•02388

•002977

• • •

...

1

•04759

•006758

•02126

•0001902

•02337

•002912

• •

2

•04633

•006576

•02105

•0001882

•02288

•002843

• • i

3

•04512

•006401

•02084

•0001862

•02241

•002790

• m i

4

•04397

•006234

•02064

•0001843

•02196

•002732

• • 4

5

•04286

■006074

•02044

•0001824

•02163

•002677

• •

6

•04181

•005920

•02025

•0001806

•02111

•002624

• • i

7

•04080

•005775

•02007

•0001789

•02070

•002570

• •!

8

•03983

•005633

•01989

•0001772

•02031

•002520

• •

*

9

•03891

•005499

•01972

•0001756

•01993

•002472

• •

10

•03802

•005370

•01955

•0001739

•01956

•002424

3^095

•9969

11

•03718

•005248

•01940

•0001725

•01920

•002378

2*996

•9652

12

•03637

•005129

•01925

•0001710

•01885

•002333

2^900

•9344

13

•03660

•005011

•01911

•0001696

•01851

•002289

2^808

•9048

14

•03486

•004908

•01897

•0001682

•01818

•002246

2^720

•8766

15

•03415

•004804

•01883

•0001669

•01786

•002205

2 •635

•8493

16

•03347

•004703

•01869

•0001654

•01756

•002164

2^553

•8230

17

•03283

•004609

•01856

•0001641

•01725

•002125

2^474

•7977

18

•03220

•004515

•01844

•0001630

•01698

•002089

2^399

•7736

19

•03161

•004428

•01831

•0001616

•01667

•002049

2^328

•7508

20

•03102

•004339

•01819

•0001604

•01639

•002012

2^260

•7291

21

•03044

•004253

•01805

•0001590

•01611

•001975

2^200

•7098

22

•02988

•004169

•01792

•0001575

•01584

•001940

2^143

•6916

23

•02934

•004088

•01779

•0001561

•01557

•001903

2^087

•6737

24

•02881

•004009

•01766

•0001548

•01530

•001868

2 •OSS

•6570

25

•02831

•003932

•01754

•0001534

•01604

•001832

1^985

•6411

26

•02783

•003859

•01742

•0001522

•01478

•001798

1-937

•6267

27

•02736

•003787

•01731

•0001509

•01453

•001764

1^891

•6110

28

•02691

•003717

•01720

•0001497

•01428

•001731

1^848

•5973

29

•02649

•003653

•01709

•0001485

•01404

•001699

1^808

•5845

30

•02608

•003588

•01699

•0001470

•01380

•001666

1*769

•5722

35

•02440

•003316

•01666

•0001426

•01271

•001516

1^575

•5103

40

•02306

•003081

•01644

•0001385

•01182

•001386

1^414

•4589

45

•02187

•002860

•01624

•0001338

•01111

•001275

1^300

•4227

50

•02090

•002657

•01608

•0001288

•01061

•001184

1^204

•3927

60

•01946

•002274

•01600

•0001178

•01000

•001026

1-006

•3294

70

•01833

•001857

•01600

•0001021

• • e

• ••

0-848

•2792

80

•01761

•001381

•01600

•0000790

• • •

• • •

0-672

•2226

90

•01723

•000787

•01600

•0000461

• • •

• • •

0-380

•1268

100

•01700

•000000

•01600

•0000000

•01000

•000000

0^000

•0000

SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER

21

TABLE S— Continued.

Carbon moDOzide,

Carbon dioxide.

Hydrogen sol-

Ammonia,

1
T.

W.

B. &B.

phide, F.

B.

1

a.

«•

a.

3-

a.

5-

a.

Q-

0-03537

0-004397

1-713

0-3347

4-686

0-710

1298-9

98-7

1

0-03455

0-004293

1-646

0-3214

4-555

0-689

1220-2

92-7

2

0-03375

0-004192

1-584

0-3091

4-428

0-670

1154-7

87-7

3

0-03297

0-004092

1-527

0-2979

4-303

0-651

1100-9

83-6

4

0-03222

0-003997

1-473

0-2872

4-182

0-632

1053-0

79-9

5

0-03149

0-003904

1-424

0-2774

4 063

0-615

1019-5

77-3

6

0-03078

0-003814

1-377

0-2681

3-948

0-596

997-2

75-6

7

0-03009

0-003726

1-331

0-2590

3-836

0-579

974-9

73-9

8

0-02942

0-003641

1-282

0*2494

3-728

0-562

954-6

72-3

9

0-02878

0-003560

1-237

0-2404

3-622

0-546

933-0

70-6

10

0-02816

0-003481

1-194

0-2319

3-520

0-530

910-4

68-9

11

0-02757

0-003416

1-154

0-2240

3-421

0-515

888-0

67-2

12

0-02701

0-003333

1-117

0-2166

3-325

0-500

865-6

65-5

13

0-02646

0-003260

1-083

0-2099

3-232

0-485

843-2

63-7

U

0-02593

0-003188

1-050

0-2033

3-142

0-471

822-1

62-1

15

0-02543

0-003130

1-019

0-1971

3-066

0-458

802-4

60-6

16

0-02494

0-003066

0-985

0-1904

2-973

0-445

783-2

69-1

17

0-02448

-008007

0-956

0-1845

2-893

0-433

764-1

57-6

18

0-02402

0-002943

0-928

0-1789

2-816

0-421

744-3

56-1

19

0-02360

0-002893

0-902

0-1736

2-742

0-409

725-8

54-7

20

0-02319

0-002839

0-878

0-1689

2-672

0-398

710-6

53-5

21

0-02281

0-002789

0-854

0-1641

• • •

690-2

51-9

22

0-02244

0-002739

0-829

0-1591

• • •

674-3

50-6

23

0*02208

0-002691

0-804

0-1641

• • •

661-0

49-6

24

0-02174

0-002647

0-781

0-1494

• • •

647-8

48-6

25

0-02142

0-002603

0-759

0-1450

• • •

634-6

47-6

26

0-02110

0-002660

0-738

0-1407

• a •

621-3

46-5

27

0-02080

0-002519

0-718

0-1367

• • •

608-1

45-5

28

0-02051

0-002479

0-699

0-1828

• • •

594-8

44-4

29

0-02024

0-002442

0-982

0-1293

• • •

1

• • •

30

0-01998

0-002405

0-665

0-1259

■ • •

• ••

35

0-01877

0-002231

0-592

0-1106

• • •

• • •

40

0-01775

0-002076

0-530

0-0974

• • •

• «•

45

0-01690

0-001934

0-479

0-0862

• • •

• • •

50

0-01615

0-001797

0-436

0-0762

• • •

• • •

60

0-01488

0-001521

0-359

0-0577

• • •

• • •

70

0-01440

0-001276

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

80

0-01430

0-000981

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

90

0-01420

0-000568

• • •

• • •

• • •

• ••

100

0-01410

0-000000

• • •

• • •

• • •

»»•

22 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE S—CorUintied.

T.

BalphuT

dioxide,

Hydrogen chloride,

Methane, W.

a.

Q-

a.

«.

a.

Q-

79-789

22-83

506-7

82-5

0-05563

0-008959

1

77-210

22-09

■ « •

• • ■

0-05401

003842

2

74-691

21-37

499-8

81-4

0-05244

0-003729

8

72-230

20-67

• • •

• ■ ■

0-05093

0-008620

4

69-828

19-98

493-7

80-4

0*04946

0-003514

5

67-485

19-31

• • ■

■ « •

0-04805

0-008411

6

65-200

18-66

486-9

79-3

04669

0-008812

7

62-973

18-02

• ■ •

• ■ •

0-04539

0-008218

8

60-805

17-40

480-8

78-3

0-04413

0-008127

9

58-697

16-80

• • •

• • •

0-04292

0-003039

10

56-647

16-21

473-9

77-2

0-04177

0-002956

11

54-655

15-64

• • ■

• • •

0-04072

0-002880

12

52-723

15-09

467-7

76-2

0-03970

-002805

13

50-849

14-56

• • •

• • •

0-03872

0-002733

14

49-033

14-04

461-5

75-2

0-03779

0-002666

16

47-276

13-54

• • •

• • •

03690

-002600

16

45-578

13-05

455-2

74-2

0-08606

0-002538

17

43-939

12-59

• • ■

• • •

0-03525

0-002479

18

43-360

12-14

448*3

73-1

0-03446

0-002422

19

40*838

11-70

• • •

• • •

0-03376

0-002869

20

89-374

11-29

442-0

72-1

0-03308

0-002819

21

37-970

10-89

• • •

• • •

0-03243

-002270

22

36-617

10-50

435-0

71-0

0-03180

0-002223

23

35-302

10-13

• • •

• • •

0-03119

0-002178

24

84-026

9-76

428-7

70-0

0-03061

0-002134

25

82-786

9-41

• • •

• • •

0-03006

0-002092

26

81-584

9-07

423-0

69-1

0-02952

0-002051

27

30-422

8-43

a • •

• • •

0-02901

0-002012

28

29-314

8-42

417-2

68-2

0-02852

0-001974

29

28-210

8-10

• • •

• • •

0-02806

0-001939

30

27-161

7-81

411-5

67-3

0-02762

0-001905

85

22-489

6-47

• • •

• • •

0-02546

0-001732

40

18-766

5-41

387-7

63-3

0-02369

0-001586

50

*• •

• • •

361-6

59-6

0-02134

0-001859

60

•• •

• • •

338-7

56-1

01954

0-001145

70

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

0-01825

0-000926

80

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

0'01770

0-000695

90

•••

• • •

• • •

• • •

0-01735

0-000398

100

•••

• • •

• • •

• • •

0-01700

0-000000

SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER-

23

TABLE S'-CoTUinu^d,

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

! Nitrous

oxide.

Bthyk

ne, W.

AoetyU

me, W.

Air, W.

in

T.

Alcohol,
B.

a.

fl*

a.

fl.

a.

a.

0-226

0-0281

1-73

0-20

0-02881

4-1780

1

0-219

0-0272

1-68

0-19

0-02808

4-1088

2

0-211

0*0262

1-63

0-19

0-02738

4-0409

3

0-204

0-0254

1-58

0-18

0-02670

3-9741

4

0-197

0-0245

1-58

0-18

0-02606

3*9085

5

0-191

0-0237

1-49

0-17

0-02548

8-8442

6

0-184

0-0228

1-45

0-17

0-02482

8-7811

7

0-178

0-0221

1-41

0-16

0-02424

3-7192

8

0-178

0-0214

1-37

0-16

0-02869

3-6585

9

0-167

0-0207

1-34

0-16

0-02316

8-5990

10

0-162

0-0200

1-31

0-15

0-02264

3-6408

11

0-157

0-0194

1-27

0-15

0-02217

3-4838

12

0-152

0-0188

1-24

0-14

0-02171

3-4279

13

0-148

0-0188

1-21

0-14

0-02127

8-3784

14

0-143

0-0176

1-18

0-14

0-02085

8-3200

15

0-139

0-0171

1-16

0-13

0-02045

3-2678

16

0-136

0-0167

1-13

0-13

0-02005

3-2169

17

0-132

0-0162

1-10

0-13

0-01970

3-1672

18

0-129

0-0158

1-08

0-12

0-01935

3-1187

19

0-125

0-0153

1-05

0-12

0-01901

8-0714

20

0-122

0-0150

1-03

0-12

0-01869

3-0253

21

0-119

0-0146

1-01

0-12

0-01838

2-9805

22

0-116

0-0142

0-99

0-11

0-01808

2-9368

23

0-114

0-0139

0-97

0-11

0-01779

2-8944

24

0-111

0-0135

0-95

0-11

0-01751

2-8532

25

0-108

0-0131

0-93

0-11

0-01724

26

0-106

0-0129

0-91

0-10

0-01698

27

0-104

0-0126

0-89

0-10

0-01674

28

0-102

0-0123

0-87

0-10

0-01650

29

0-100

0-0121

0-85

0-10

0-01627

30

0-098

• • •

• • •

• * •

• • ■

• • •
»• •

• • •

• • •

0-0118

0-84

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

• ••

• • •

• • •

• • •

0-09

• ■ •

• • •

• ••

• • •

• • •

• • •

• » •

• • •

0-01606
0-01503
0-01418
0-01297
0-01216
0-01156
0-01126
0-01113
0-01105

24 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 9.— SPEOIFIO GRAVITIES OF SOLIDS.

Alumina, anhydrous .
Alum, ammonium
potassium .
Aluminium sulphate,

cryst.
Aluminium .
Alum stone .
Ammonium nitrate

sulphate .
chloride .
Anhydrite (CaS04) .
Anthracite .
Antimony .
Arsenious acid .
Arsenic acid
Asphalt

Ash wood . . .
Barium chloride, cryst.
carbonate
sulphate (spar)
hydroxide, cryst.
Bauxite

Basalt • . . .
Beech wood, dry
Birch wood, dry .
Bismuth
Borate of magnesium

(boracite) .
Borax, crystallised
Boric acid, crystallised

fused .
Brown coal, lignite
Brickwork .
Bricks, ordinary
Brass .
Calamine .
Chalk .
Calcium chloride, cryst.
chloride, anhydrous
silicate .
carbonate
phosphate
sulphate, anhydrous

4-15

1-626

1-724

•596

•76

•8

•707

•77

•528

•96

■4-1-7

7

•884

•250

•1-1-2

•7-0-8

•664

'66

•73

•66

2-8-3-2
0-7-0-8
0-7-0-8
9-85

2-9

692
479
830
2-1-4
5-1 -7
1-4-2-2
8-4-8-7
4-1-4-5
8-2-7
■612
240
9
7

18
927

Calcspar
Cannel coal .
Cement

China clay, kaolin
Charcoal, organic
wood .
Coke, porous
Coal, porous
Copper, metallic, cast .
hammered
pyrites .
oxide
sulphate
Cuprous sulphide
Clay .
Cryolite
Elm wood
Fat, animal
Felspar
Fibres, vegetable
Fir wood, dry
Firebricks .
Flint ....
Glass, green
plate

crystal, Bohem.
flint, English .
Glauber's salt, cryst. .
anhydrous
Granite
Gypsum,plaster-of-Paris

cast, dry
Heavy spar .
Iodine ....
Iron, wrought

grey, cast .
white, cast .
peroxide

hydrated oxide .
magnetic oxide .
carbonate .
sulphate, cryst. .
pyrites, white .

2*72 ■

1-16-1-27

2-7-3-05

2-21

1-57

0-3-0-5

0-4

1-16-1-63

8-726

8-94

4-1-4-3

6-43

2-27

5-97

1-8-2-6

2-96

0-67

0-92

2-5-2-6

1-51

0-6

1

2

2'

2"

2'

3'

1"

2-

2-

2-

'85

7

642

'450

9-3-0

4-3-44

52

63

5-2-9

322

97

3-4-48

948

4-7-9
6-6-7-3
7-1-7-9
5-22
3-94
5-4
3-87
1-904
4-65-4-88

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF SOLIDS

9n

TABLE 9^CofUimied.

Iron, pyrites . . 6

Larch wood . .

Lignite . . . 1

Lime, burnt, quick- . 3

Lime wood . . .

Litharge . . .9

Lead, cast . . .11

red . . .8

chromate . . 6

acetate, cryst. . 2

carbonate . . 6

nitrate . . 4

sulphide . . 7

sulphate . . 6

chloride . . 5

Magnesia, calcined . 3

carbonate . 2

Magnesite . . .2

Magnesium sulph.,cryst 1

chloride, cryst. 1

Manganese peroxide . 2

native ore 4

Maple wood . .

Marble . . . 2

Nickel .... 8

Oak, dry . . .0

Phosphorus, yellow . 1

red . . 2

Pine wood, white .

red . . 0'

Platinum . . .21

Podcwood . .' . 1'

Poplar. . . . 0'

Porcelain . . .2'

Porphyry . . .2*

Potash, natural . .2'

Potassium carbonate . 2'

chlorate . 2'

chloride . 1'

chromate . 2*

•18

•44-0-6
•2-1-4
•08
-6
•86
-8
-62
•00
•395
47
40
•606
•169
•802
•2

•94 .
•9-3^1
-751
•568
•94
•7-5-0
•5-0-6
•5-2-8
•9

•86-0-95
'826
106
■65
•5
1

268
38

1-2 ^5
8
3

264
35
946
603

Potassium, nitrate
sulphate

. 2-068

. 2-66

bisiilphate. 2-277

hydroxide. 2-044

. 2-7

Quartz
Resin .
Rock salt .
Sal-ammoniac
Sand, dry .
damp
Sandstone .
Silver .
Silver chloride
Slate .

Sodium carbonate
carbonate
chloride .
nitrate .
sulphate .
sulphide .
thiosulphate
hydroxide
Steel .
Steel, cast .

hardened .
Sulphur, native .

sticks, fresh
sticks, old
soft,amorphous 1-96
Sulphuric anhydriae . 1*97
Tin, cast

hammered
Willow wood
Witherite ,
Zinc, cast .
roUed .
blende
oxide .
sulphate

. 1-07
. 2-1-2-2
. 1-528
. 1-4-1-6
. 1-9-2-0
. 1-9-2 -5
. 10-6
. 5-501
. 2-7
anh. 2-509
cryst 1-454
. 2-078
. 2-226
. 2-63
. 2-471
1-736
2-130
7-80
7^92
7-66
2-069
1-98
2-05

7-21-7-4

7-475

0-5-0-58

4-30

6-8

7^2

3-9r4^2

5-73

2-036

26 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 10.— WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES AS

STORED.

Substance.

Bricks

Cement

Clay, damp . . . ^ .

dry

Limestone and other building stones .
Mortar (lime and sand)

Quicklime

Sand, dry

damp

Wood, beech logs ....

fir logs

oak logs

Raw Materials, etc., for Alkali Works.

Pyrites, broken pieces

smalls

burnt

Nitre

Nitre cake (acid sulphate of soda)
Salt . . . . . . .

Saltcake

Limestone (small pieces) .
Black ash (lumps) ....
Alkali waste (wet) . . . .
Soda salts (NaaCOg + HgO) (drained) .
Soda ash (unground) ....

Soda crystals

Bicarbonate (ground) ....
Quicklime (small lumps) .
Sieved lime (for bleaching powder) .
Bleaching powder ....
Manganese dioxide, native

Limestone dust

Coke (for filling towers)

Flints ,i „ . . .

Cinders (ashes)

1 Cubic

1 Cubic

Metre

Foot

Weighs

Weighs

Kilo.

lb. avdp.

2100

131

1200

75

1650

103

1670

98

2000

125

1800

112

1000

62-5

1330

88

1770

110

400

24-5

330

20-5

420

26

2500

156

2340

146-5

1620

95-0

1310

81-5

1335

83

689

43

1180

78-5

1400

87-5

962

60

1268

79

810

50-5

1195

74-5

1010

63

986

61-5

1058

66

497-593

31-87

721-834

45-52

2210

138

1650

96-5

417-534

26-33

1600

100

738

46

Tons

per

Cub. Foot.

•0584
•0335
•0459
•0437
•0658
•0500
•0279
•0370
•0491
•0107
•0091
•0116

•0696
•0654
•0424
•0364
•0375
•0192
•0328
•0391
•0268
•0352
•0225
•0332
•0281
•0274
•0295
•0151
•0216
•0616
•0431
•0131
•0446
•0206

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS, ETC.

27

TABLE ll.—SPBOIPIO GRAVITY OP LIQUIDS.

Specific
Gravity.

Temp.

«

Acetic anhydride ....

1-004

17"

Acetone

0-81

• • •

Alcohol

0-7939

12" -5

Acetic acid

1-064

17"

Bisulphide of carbon

1-272

• • •

Benzene

0-884

15"-5

Coal tar

1-15

15"

Ether

0-723

12" -5

Glycerine

1-260

16"

Linseed oil

0*9347

15"

Mercury

13-596

0"

Nitrogen peroxide (liquid)

1-45

• • ■

Olive oil

0-917

15"

Petroleum

0-78-0-81

16'

Rapeseed oil

0-9136

16"

Sulphur dioxide (liquid) .

1-45

20"

1-02-1-04

15"

Spirits of turpentine

0-865

15"

TABLE 12.— SPBCIPIO GRAVITY AND PERCENT-
AGE OF SATURATED SOLUTIONS.

The percentage refers to Anhydrous Salt.

Ammonium chloride
sulphate
Barium chloride
Calcium chloride .
Magnesium sulphate
Potassium chloride .
carbonate
nitrate .
sulphate
Sodium chloride

carbonate .
. nitrate
sulphate .

Tem-

Percentage

Specific

Degrees

perature.

of Salt.

Gravity.

TwaddeU.

15

26-30

1-0776

15-5

19

50-00

1-2890.

57-8

15

25-97

1-2827

56-5

15

40-66

1-4110

82-2

15

25-25

1-2880

57-6

15

24-90

1-1723

34-4

15

52-02

1 -5708

114

15

21-07

1-1441

28-8

15

9-92

1-0831

16-6

15

26-395

1-2043

40-8

15

14-35

1-1535

30-7

19-5

46-25

1 -3804

76

15-0

11-95

1-1117

22-3

28 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 18. — UNBAR EXPANSION OF

SUBSTANCES.

By variation of temperatme from 0° to 100" C. (32^-212*' F.).

Brass .

Charcoal from oak
fir
, Copper
! Glass, flint .
white
green
Gold .
Iron, wrought .

cast .
Lead .

Marble of Carrara
St Beat
Platinmn •
SUver .
Solder, hard
Steel, hardened .

not hardened
Tin . . .
Water .
Zinc .

0-001868

(535

0-001200

:833 ,

0-00100

:1000 i

0-001718

(582 ;

0-000817

:1219

0-000861

:1161

0-000766

:1305

0-001466

:682

0-001235

:812

0-001110

901

0-002848

:351

0*000849

:1178

0-000418

1 i

:2392

0-000884

1 4

ai32

0-001908

1

:524

0-002058

li

i486

0-001240

1

:807

0-001079

1]

!927

0-001938

:516

0-015538

71-4

0-002942

340

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30 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

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CONVERSION OF CENTIGRADE INTO FAHR. 31

TABIiB 15.— CONVERSION OF CELNTIGRADB INTO
FAHRENHEIT DEGREES ABOVE 100, AND
VICE VERSA.

Divide the degrees above 100 into hundreds and a remainder. The
fignre corresponding to the hundreds is taken from the following
tables and added to that corresponding to the remainder as taken ^m
Table 17. If, on converting Fahrenheit into Centigrade, the "re-
mainder " amounts to 32", or less, the degrees Centigrade correspond-
ing to it are negative (below freezing point), and hence must be
deducted from the figures of the following table. Also note, for
example, that 300** F. is not=166-7'' C, but= 166-7 -17-8, or=lll-l
+ 377 -7 = 148 -9° C.

A.

c.

Fahr.

C.

Fahr.

c.

Fahr.

C.

Fahr.

100

180

600

1080

1100

1980

1600

2880

200

360

700

1260

1200

2160

1700

3060

300

540

800

1440

1300

2340

1800

3240

400

720

900

1620

1400

2620

1900

3420

500

900

1000

1800

1500

2700

2000

1

3600

B.

Fahr.

C.

Fahr.

C.

Fahr.

C.

Fahr.

c.

100

55-6

1000

666-6

1900

1055-6

2800

1555-6

200

111-1

1100

611-1

2000

1111-1

2900

1611-1

300

166-7

1200

666-7

2100

1166-7

3000

1666-7

400

222-2

1300

722-2

2200

1222-2

3100

1722-2

500

277-8

1400

777-8

2300

1277-8

3200

1777-8

600

333-3

1500

833-3

2400

1333-3

3300

1833-3

700

388-9

1600

888-9

2500

1388-9

3400

1888-9

800

444-4

1700

944-4

2600

1444-4

3500

1944-4

900

600

1800

1000

1

2700

1500

• 9 •

• . •

32 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 16.— MELTING POINTS (FREEZING

POINTS).

Alcohol (ethylic) .

Aluminium

Ammonia .

Antimony .

Asphalt

Benzene (pure) .

Bismuth

Boric acid .

Brass .

Bromine

Bronze

Cadmium .

Carbon dioxide .

Cobalt

Colophonium

Copper

Cupric chloride .

Cuprous chloride

Fat, ox

sheep .

pig •
Fluorspar * .

Glass .

containing lead
Gold .

Iron, cast, white .
grey .
wrought
Iodine.
Lead .

oxide .

chloride
Magnesium
Mercury

Mercuric chloride *
Naphthalene
Nickel
Nitric acid .
oxide
Nitric tetroxide .
Nitrous oxide

Degrees Gent.

-130

657

-75

630

100

6

268

186

900

-22

900

321

-70

1600

135

1084

498

434

40

42

27

902-1330

1200

1000

1063

1075-1135

1200-1250

1500

113

326

954

490

633

-89-5

287-293

79

1484

-54

-148-8 to -167

-11

-102

The statements found in literature vary between these limits.

MELTING POINTS (FREEZING POINTS) 38

TABLE 16— Con^titftf.

Palm oil ....
Paraffin, hard
Pitch (coal tar, hard) .
Phosphorus

Platinum ....
Potassium chlorate * .
iodide *
carbonate *
nitrate * .
chloride* .
sulphate •
Rose's metal
Seleniui^i . ...
Stearic acid

Steel

Silver, metallic •
chloride * .
nitrate .
Strontium chloride
Sodium chloride *
sulphate *
nitrate * .
chlorate*
carbonate * .
Spermaceti. ,
Sulphur (monoclinic) .
dioxide .
trioxide .
Sulphuretted hydrogen
Sulphuric acid, 0/ special part
ThalUum . . . .

Tin

tetrachloride
Wax, bees* ....
Wood's metal
Zinc

Degfeet Cent.

29
45-60
150-200
44
1710
248-802
614-723
884-898
827-853
740-804
1015-1078
94
217
70
1875
961-5
450-460
217
825
772-840
861-884
308-880
248-802
814-918
45-50
120-1
-72-7
14-8
-85

801

282

-88

62-70

70

419

The sti^tements found in literature vary between these limits.

34 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

o

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BOILING POINTS

35

TABLB 18.— BOILING POINTS.

Acetone

Alcohol, absolute . . . .

Aldehyde

Ammonia, anhydrous

nitrate, satur. solution
Barium chloride, satur. solution
Benzene ......

Bromine

Calcium chloride, satur. solution
66 per cent, solution
33 per cent solution
nitrate, satur. solution .

Carbon dioxide

bisulphide ....

Chlorine

Ether

Hydrochloric acid, 20*2 per cent. HCl
Iodine.' . . . .
Methylic alcohol . . . . .
Mercury ....
Naphthalene ...
Nitric acid, very concentrated .
specific gravity 1'42
Nitrous anhydride • • • .

Degrees
Centigrade.

56
78
21
-337
164
104-4
80-4
68*0
178
156
128
152
-78
47
-83-6
85
110
184-4
60
356
1^18
■86
121
3-5

36 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 18'-C<midwued.

Degrees
Centigrade.

Nitrous oxide

!

-88

Nitric peroxide

20

Potassium chloride, satur. solution .

108-5

chlorate, satur. solution

«

104-4

acetate, satur. solution

161

carbonate, satur. solution .

133-5

nitrate, satur. solution

115

sulphate, satur. solution

102-1

Sodium chloride, satur. solution .

108-8

acetate, satur. solution .

125

carbonate, satur. solution

105

phosphate, satur. solution

106-6

nitrate, satur. soluti

ion .

120

Sulphur ....

445

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4.

826

anhydride a

-

15

P

50

Sulphur dioxide .

-10

Toluene ....

111

Xylenes ....

136-141

Turpentine, spirits of .

. . .

160

Zinc . • . .

i.

930

HIGH TEMPERATURES

„ SI „„„„_ j5„„

S '0" S

aissasi • -agd

■|| I! I

■I -t ;-«■ I

1 ?!•■•■.■■ i

.2 « -o^ . „ i .8^ I
1° Sill

'■" iih

Sill
sill

ill hEhs

TABLB 20.— RBDUOnON QF THB V0LX7MB OF

General formnla for Dry Gases, Vn = ^^^^

6= Barometric pressure, reduced to 0" ; t=tenipeiratare ; /= tension

I. Table for reducing the volumes of

0*.

1*.

2*.

8".

4*.

5'.

6%

7'.

8°.

jr.

10'.

0*.

1

0-996

0-998

0-989

0*986

0*982

0*978

0*975

0*V72

6*968

0*966

-
1

$

1-998

. 1-986

. 1-978

1*571

1*964

1*967

l*96a

^*948

1*986

1*929

2

8

8-989

8-978

2-967

2*957

2-946

8*986

8*926

2*916

2*904

2*894

S

4

8-986

8-971

8*956

8*942

8*928

8*914

8*900

8*886

8*872

8*859

4

5

4-988

. 4-964

, 4*946

4*528

4*910

4*898

4*876

.4*868

4*841

4*824

5

6

6-978

6-966

6*986

6*918

6*892

6*871

6*860

6*880

5*809

6-788

6

.7

6-974

6-949

6*924

6*899

6*874

6*860

6*825

6*801

6*777

6*768

7

8

7-970

7-948

7*918

7*885

7*856

7*828

7*800

7*778

7*746

7*718

8

9

8-967

8*984

8-902

8*870

8*888

8*807

8*775

8-744

8*718

8*682

9

10

9-968

9-927

9-891

9*856

9*820

9-786

9*760

9-716

9*681

9*647

10

11

10-96

10-92

10-88

10*84

10*80

10*76

10*78

10*69

10-65

10*61

11

12

11-96

11-91

11-87

11*88

11*78 •

11*74

11-70

11*66

11*62

11*57

12

18

18-96

12-91

12-86

12*81

12-76

12*72

12*68

12-68

12J*69

12*64

18

U

18-96

18-90

18-85

18*80

18*75

18*70

18*65

18*60

18*56

18*50

14

16

14-96

14-89

14-84

14*78

14*78

14*68

14*68

14-57

14*62

14*47

16

16

16-94

15-88

15*88

15-77

15*71

15*66

15*60

15*66

15*49

16*48

16

17

16-94

16-87

16*82

16*75

16*69

16*64

16*58

16*62

16*46

16*40

17

18

17-98

17-87

17*81

17*74

17*67

17*61

17*55

17*49

17*48

17*86

18

19

18-98

18-86

18*79

18-72

18*65

18*59

18*58

18*46

18*89

18*88

19

SO

19-98

19-85

19*78

19*71

19*64

19*67

19*50

19*48

19*86

19*29

20

-81

80-98

20^

20*77

20*69

20-62

20*56

20*48

20*40

20-88

20*26

21

2i

81-92

21-84

21*76

21*68

21-60

21*58

21*46

21*87

21*80

21*22

22

S8

88-92

22-88

22-75

22*66

22*58

22*51

22*48

22*86

22*26

22*18

23

84

28-92

28-82

28*74

28*65

28*56

28*48

28*40

28*82

28*28

28*16

24

85

34*91

24-81

24*78

24*64

24*55

24*46

24*88

24*29

24*20

24*11

26

86

85-91

25-81

25*72

25*62

25*58

26*44

26*86

26*26

2617

25*08

26

87

26-90

26*80

26*71

26*61

26*62

26-42

26-88

26-28

26*18

26*04

27

88

27-90

27'79

27*69

27*59

27*60

27*40

27-80

27*20

2t*10

27*01

28

89

88*90

28-78

28*68

28*68

28*48

28*88

28*28

28*17

28*07

27*97

29

80

29-89

29;78

29*67

29*57

29*46

29*86

29*25

29*15

29*04

28*94

80

81

80-89

80-77

80-66

80-65

80*44

80*84

80*28

80-12

80*01

29*91

81

88

81-88

81-76

81*65

81*54

81*42

81*82

81*20

81*09

80*98

80*87

82

88

82-88

82*76

82*64

82*52

82*40

82-80

82*18

82*06

81-94

81*84

88

84

88-88

88-75

88*68

88*61

88*88

88*27

88*16

88*08

82*91

82*80

84

85

84-87

84-74

84*62

84-50

84*87

84*26

84*18

84*01

89*88

88*77

35

86

85*87

85-74

85*61

85*48

85*86

85*28

85*10

84*98

84*85

84*78

86

87

86-87

86*78

86*60

86-47

86*88

86*21

86*08

85*95

86*82

86*70

87

88

87-86

87*72

87*59

87-46

87*82

87*19

87*05

86*92

86*79

86*66

88

89

88-86

88-71

88*58

88*44

88*80

88*16

88*08

87*80

87*75

87*62

89

40

89-86

89*71

89*56

89*42

89-28

89*14

89*00

88*86

88*72

88*59

40

41

40-85

40*70

40*55

40*41

40*26

40*12

89*98

89*88

89*69

89*65

41

42

41-85

41-69

41*54

41*89

41*24

41*10

40-95

40*80

40*66

40*62

42

48

42-84

42*68

42*58

42*88

42-22

42*08

41*98

41*78

41*62

41*48

48

44

48-84

48*68

48*52

48*87

48-20

48*05

42*90

42*75

42*59

42*45

44

45

44-84

44*67

44*51

44*85

44*19

44*08

48*88

48*72

48*56

48*41

46

46

45-88

45*66

45*50

45*84

4617

45-01

44*85

44*69

44*68

44*88

46

47

46-88

46*65

46*48

46-82

46*15

45*99

46*88

45*66

46*50

45*84

47

48

47-88

47*65

47*48

47*31

47*18

46*97

46*80

46*68

46*47

46*81

48

49

48-82

48*64

48*47

48*29

48*12

47*95

47*78

47*60

47*44

47*27

49

60

49-82

49-64

49*46

49*28

49*10

48-98

48-76

48*58

48*41

48*84

50

QASBS TO VORMAIi TUMPBRATUBB & FRBSSURB.

General fbnnala for Motet Oaaes. Va » Vx^TBCft-/)
- , (278+«)7(J0

of aqueous vaponr at C. Gompara TaUe 28.

gases to a temperature of 0° C.

0\

1*.

2».

8'.

4*.

6'.

6'.

r.

8*.

9*.

10*.

0*.

61

50*82

50-68

60-46

60-26

50-08

49-91

49-78

49-66

49*88

49-21

61

62

51-81

61-62

51-44

61-26

51-06

50-89

60-70

60-52

60-86

50-17

62

68

62-81

62-62

62-48

52-24

62-06

51-87

61-68

61-49

61*81

61*18

68

64

58-81

68-61

68-42

58-22

68-08

62-84

62-66

62-46

62-28

62*10

54

66

54-80

64-60

64-41

54-21

64-01

68-82

68-68

68-44

68-25

6806

65

66

66-80

66-60

65-40

66-19

64-99

64-80

64*60

54-41

54-22

64-08

66

67

66-80

66-69

66-89

66-18

66-97

66-78

55*68

56-88

66-19

64-99

57

68

67-79

67-68

57-87

57-16

56-96

56-76

56-66

66-86

66-16

66*96

68

69

68-7»

68-67

58-87

68-16

57-98

67-74

67-68

67-82

67-12

66-92

69

60

59-78

69-66

69-86

69-18

68-92

68-71

68-50

68-80

68-09

67-88

60

61

60-78

60-56

00-84

60-12

59-90

69-69

69-48

69-27

59-06

68-86

61

62

61-78

61-55

61-88

61-10

00-88

60-67

60-45

00-24

60-08

59-81

62

63

62-77

62-64

62-82

62-09

61-86

61-66

61-48

61-21

60-99

60-77

68

64

68-77

68-68

68-81

68-07

62-84

62-68

62-40

62-18

61*96

61-74

64

66

64-76

64-63

64-80

6406

68-88

68-61

68-88

68-15

62*98

62-70

65

66

05-76

66-52

66-29

65-04

64-81

64-68

64-86

64-18

68*89

68-67

66

67

66-75

66-61

66-27

66-08

66-79

66-66

66-83

66-10

64*86

64-68

67

68

67-75

67-60

67-26

67-02

66-77

66-54

66-80

66-07

66-88

66-60

68

69

68-76

68-60

68-26

68-01

67-76

67-62

67-28

67-04

66-80

66-66

09

70

69-74

69-49

69-24

68-99

68-74

68-60

68-26

68-01

67-77

67-58

70

71

70-74

70-48

70-28

69-98

69-72

69-48

69-28

68-98

68*74

68-49

71

72

71-74

71-48

71-22

70-06

70-70

70-46

70-20

69-95

69-71

69-46

72

73

72-73

72-47

72-21

71-95

71-69

71-44

71-18

70-98

70-67

70-42

78

74

78-73

78-46

78-20

72-98

72-66

72-41

72-15

71-90

71-64

71-89

74

75

74-72

74-45

74-19

78-92

78-66

78-89

78-18

72-87

72-61

72-35

75

76

76-72

76-46

76-18

74-90

74-68

74-87

74-10

78-84

78*58

78-82

76

77

76-72

76-44

76-17

76-89

76-61

75-86

75-08

74-81

74-66

74-28

77

78

77-71

77-48

77-15

76-87

76-69

76-88

76-05

75-78

76*61

76-26

78

79

78-71

78-42

78-14

77-86

77-68

77-81

77-03

76-76

76*48

76-21

79

80

79-70

79-42

79-18

78-85

78-66

78-28

78-00

77-78

77*45

77-18

80

81

80-70

80-41

80-12

79-88

79-54

79-26

78-98

78-70

78-42

78-14

81

82

81-69

81-40

81-11

80-82

80-52

80-24

79-95

79-67

79*89

79-11

82

83

82-69

82-89

82-10

81-81

81-61

81-22

80-98

80-64

80-86

80-07

88

84

88*69

88-89

88-09

82-79

82-49

82-20

81-90

81-61

81-82

81-04

84

85

84-68

84-88

8408

88-78

88-47

88-17

82-88

82-68

82*29

82-00

86

86

85-68

86-87

85-07

84-76

84-45

84-16

88-85

88-65

83*26

82-97

86

87

86-68

86-87

86-06

85-75

86-48

86-18

84-88

84-68

84*28

88-98

87

88

87-67

87-86

87-06

86-78

86-42

86-11

85-80

86-50

85*20

84-90

88

89

88-67

88-86

88-04

87-72

87-40

87-09

86-78

86-47

86-16

85-86

89

90

89-67

89-84

89-02

88-70

88-88

88-07

87-75

87-44

87-18

86*82

90

91

90-66

90-84

90-01

89-69

89-86

89-06

88-78

88-41

88-10

87-79

91

92

91-66

91-88

91-00

90-67

90-84

90-08

89-70

89-88

89-07

88-75

92

93

92-66

92-82

91-99

91-66

91-88

91-01

90-68

90-86

90-08

89-72

98

94

98-66

98-81

92-98

92-64

92-81

91-98

91-66

91-88

91-00

90-68

94

95

94-65

94-81

98-97

98-68

98-29

92-96

92-68

92-80

91-97

91-65

95

96

95-66

95-80

94-96

94-61

94-27

98-94

98-60

98-27

92-94

92-61

96

97

96-64

96-29

96-95

95-60

96-25

94-92

94-58

94*24

98-91

98-67

97

98

97-64

97-28

96-98

96-68

96-24

96-90

95-65

95-21

94-87

94-54

98

99

98-64

98-27

97-92

97-67

97-22

96-87

96-68

96-18

95-84

96-60

99

100

99-68

99-27

98-91

98-66

98-20

97-85

97-60

97-16

96-81

96-47

100

40 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 20-
I. Table for redndng the volumes of

O'Ml

O'SDS

0-Ml

0B16

0B4

0-B88

0-988

0'-98'

l-»Si

1-81

1-BO

1-eoi

IBB

1-881

1-S8

l-87(

1-B6S

l-8(

1-SH

I'M

1-8M

1-844

i-e«

3-81

3-808

■ Bit

■ SI

8-808

8-7B

8-7«

8-740

»-7i

4-B07

4'reo

4-787

4-7»

4-70

4-876

B'788

lt-7tl

8-728

e-708

8-888

fi-681

6-64S

6-«2!

6-601

6-6(

fl-na

0-70

B-ess

8-681

6-881

T-e»

T-0U

7-887

7-60(

7-U

8-6J1

8-»:

8-881

B-B8;

8-60!

8-47

8-8(

B-«ii

•■6TB

B-BSS

BB40

lOH

1048

10-86

11 -u

11-88

11-80

11-38

lJ-41

lS-88

lS-8i

JS-SS

lS-34

13-20

18-8B

14'«1

i4->;

14-87

KI-S2

14-17

I4-1S

14-07

14-03

18-97

16-01

14-Bl

IB-M

18-17

16-08

1800

17-M

1712

17 -oe

17-00

IS'W

18-07

18-01

17-88

17-88

17-76

17-70

is-a»

Ifl-IB

Ifl-OB

lB-08

18-BB

so'ie

30-12

30-04

10-flS

IB-Bl

lfl-81

IB '77

19-70

19-82

lB-67

SI -08

SO-BS

30-88

20'71

20-64

20'6«

SO'EO

sfos

gl-BS

S1-8S

31-68

M-60

M-07

M-BB

Sl-SS

as-76

33-87

S3-6B

3S-«8

3t-Bt

38-M

38-70

38-61

28-46

38-80

as-Do

24-48

24-SO

24-38

ag-M

S-87

28-es

38-80

38-80

96-43

36-88

3638

6-16

SB'BS

aa-BS

20-7!

30-04

30-64

30-46

36-86

26-27

ST-BS

ST'TS

ST-98

ST-40

27-80

27-30

T'02

SS-M

28-04

28-M

28-4*

SS-84

28-24

28-18

38-06

an'so

MTO

3S'87

80-08

J9-S3

»i-ia

11 'ei

81-80

11 -28

81-06

SS-M

»a-67

82-4(1

81 -80

il-7B

SB'M

88-41

88-80

S8-18

88-06-

83-B6

88-78

32-61

M-ei

B4'4fl

84-87

84>38

84-18

84 '01

88-89

88-78

88-66

88-64

Il6-4fi

w-8a

se-Gs

16-40

(T-M

8710

W-B7

W-71

86-60

W46

esM

88-06

sv-ti

88-29

8B-U

»00

88-87

tB-7B

16-60

88-47

88-84

86-30

40'S7

lO-M

40-00

89-18

WBO

W-82

40-88

0-21

I0-07

ia-00

U-67

4B-26

48-11

42-81

43 -88

42-87

42-22

2-08

!l-98

42-86

W-18

4-40

4-26

14-10

8-B4

B-B2

6-60

6-86

6-B4

S-77

«■(»

7-67

7-40

7-a4

47-07

46 'SI

16-76

46-68

REDUCTION OF THE VOLUME OF GASES 41

gases to a temperature of 0* C-^Cotnixnusd,

o*.

ir.

12*.

18%

51
6S
68
64
66

66
67
68
69
60

61
62
68
64
66

66
67
68
68
70

71
72
78
74
76

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
88
84
86

86
87
88
89
90

91
92
98
94
96

96
97
98
99

100

48-06
40*99
60-96
61-91
62-87

68*84
64-80
66-76
66-72
67-68

68-64
60*60
60-66
61-68
62-49

68-46
64-41
66-87
66-88
67-29

68-26
69-21
70-17
71-14
72*10

78-06
74-02
74-98
76*94
76*90

77*86
78*82
79*78
80*76
81-71

82-67
88-68
84-69
86-66
86*62

87-48
88-44
88^
90*86
91*88

92-29
98-26
94*21
96-17
96-18

48-86
49*82
60*77
61*78
62H$9

68*66
64*61
66*66
66*62
67*47

68*48
69-89
60*86
61*81
62-26

68-22
64-18
66-18
66-09
67*06

68*01
68*97
69*92
70*88
71*84

72*80
78*76
74*71
76-67
76*68

77*69
78-66
79*60
80*46
81*42

82*88
88*88
84*29
86*26
86*21

87*17
88-18
89*08
90*04
91*00

91*96
92*92
98*87
94*88
96*79

48-69
49*64
60-69
61*66
62*60

68*46
64*41
66*87
66*82
67*28

68*28
69-19
60*14
61*10
62*06

68'01
68*96
64*92
66*87
66*82

67*77
68*78
69*68
70*64
71*69

72*66
78*61
74*46
76*41
76*87

77*82
78*28
79*28
80*19
81*14

82*10
88*06
84*01
84*96
86-92

86-87
87-88
88*78
89*78
90*68

91*64
92*69
98*66
94*60
96-46

14".

16*.

48-62
49-47
60*42
61*87
62*88

68*28
64-28
66*18
66*18
67*08

68*08
68*98
69*98
00*88
61*84

62*79
68*74
64*60
66*64
66*69

67*64
68*49
69*44
70*40
71*86

72-80
78*26
74*20
76-16
76*10

77*06
78*00
78*96
79*91
80*86

81-81
82*76
88-71
84*66
85*62

86-67
87*52
88*47
89*42
90-88

91-88
92*28
98*28
94*18
95-18

48*86
49'80
60*24
51*19
62*14

58*09
54-04
54*98
66*98
56*88

67*88
58*78
69*72
60*67
61*62

62*67
68*62
64-46
65*41
66*86

67*81
68*26
69*20
70*15
71*10

72*05
78*00
78*94
74*89
75*84

76*79
77*74
78-68
79*68
80*58

81*58
82*48
88*42
84*87
85*82

86*27
87-22
88*16
89*11
90*06

91*01
91*96
92*90
98*86
94-80

16*.

ir.

18*.

19'.

20*.

0*.

48*18
49*18
50*07
61*02
61-96

52*91
58*86
54*80
66*74
56-68

67-68
58-57
69*52
60*46
61*40

62*85
68-29
64-28
65*18
66*18

67*07
68*02
68*96
69-91
70-86

71-80
72-74
78*69
74*68
75*68

76*62
77*47
78*41
79-86
80-80

81*24
82-19
88*18
84*06
86*02

85*96
86*91
87-86
88-80
89-74

90-69
91*68
92*68
98*52
94-47

48*01
48*95
49*89
60-64
51*78

62-72
68*66
64*60
66*64
66*48

57*42
68*86
69*80
60-26
61*19

62*18
68*07
64*01
64*95
66*90

66*84
67*78
68-72
69-66
70-61

71-66
72-49
78*48
74*87
75*81

76*25
77*19
78*18
79*08
80*02

80*96
81*90
82*84
88*78
84-72

86*66
86-60
87*64
88*49
89*48

90*87
91*81
92*25
98-19
94-14

47*86
48*79
49*72
60-66
51*60

62*64
68-48
64*42
66-85
56*29

67*28
68-17
69*11
60-04
60*98

61-92
62*86
68*80
64*78
65*67

66*61
67*66
68*49
60*42
70*87

71*80
72*24
78*18
74-11
76-06

76*00
76*94
77*87
78*81
79-76

80*69
81*68
82-57
88-60
84-44

85-88
86*82
87*25
88*19
89*18

90*07
91*00
91*94
92*88
98*82

47*68
48-62
49-66
60-49
61-48

62*86
68*29
54*28
66*16
66*09

67-02
67-96
68*90
69*88
60*77

61-70
62-68
68-67
64-60
65*44

66*88
67-81
68-26
69-18
70-12

71*06
71*98
72-92
78*86
74*79

75*78
76-66
77*60
78*58
79*47

80*40
81*88
82*27
88-22
84*14

85*07
86*01
86-96
87*88
88*82

89*75
90*68
91-62
92*55
98*49

47*62
48*46

48*88
60*82
61-26

62-18
68*71
64*04
64-97
66-91

66-84
57*77
58*11
59*64
60*67

61*60
62*48
68*86
64*80
66*28

66-16
67-09
68*08
68-06
69*89

70*82
71-76
72*68
78-61
74*54

75*47
76*40
77*84
78*27
79*20

80-18
81*06
81*99
82*98
88-86

84*79
85*72
86*66
87*59
88-62

89*46
90*88
91*81
92*24
98*18

61
62
68
64

66

66
67
58
69
60

61
62
68
64
66

66

67
68
60
70

71
72
78
74
76

76
77
78
79
80

81
82
88
84
86

86
87
88
89
90

91
92
98
94
95

96
97
98
99
100

42 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDFOOK

TABLE 20-
L Table iBc>r redneing the volumes of

0*.

1

21*.

22-.

28*.

.24'. .

.25*.

26'.

2r.

28'.

29-.

0*.

0*929

0-926

0*992

i 0r919

0-916

0-918

0*910

0*907

0-904

1

2

1-857

1-861

1*84;5

1-889

1-882

1-8SW

1-820

1-814

1-808

2

8

2-786

2-777

2-767

2'768

2-749

2-788

2-780

2-721

2*712

8

4

8-714

8-702

8-690

8-677

8-666

8-662

,8*640

8-628

8-616

4

6

4-648

4-628

4-612

4*607

4-581

. 4-666

!4-561

f

4-686

4-520

5

6

5-572

6-558

6-684

6*6!l6

6-497

8-479

5-461

6-442

6-424

6

7

6-500

6-479

6-457

6-485

6-418

6*892

6-871

6-849

6-828

7

8

7-429

7-404

7-879

7^854

7-880

7*806

7-281

7-266

7-282

8

9

8-867

8-880

8-80g

8*274

8-846

8-218

8-191

8-168

8-186

9

10

9-286

9-255

9-224

9-198

9-162

9-181

9-101

9-070

9-040

10

11

10-21

10-18

10-15

10*11

10-07

10-04

10-01

9*98

9*94

11

12

11-14

11-11

11 -OT

11-08

10-99

10-96

10-92

10*88

10-85

12

18

12-07

12-08

11-99

11-96

11*91

11*87

11-88

11-79

11-75

18

.14

18-00

12-96

12-91

12-87

12*88

• 12*78

12-74

12-70

12-66

14

16

18-98

18-88

18-84

18*79

18-74

18*70

18*66

18-61

18-66

15

16

14-86

14-81

14-76

14-71

14-66

14-61

14-66

14*61

14-46

16

17

15-79

15-78

15-68

15-68

15-58

15-52

15-47

15-42

16-87

17

18

16-n

16-66

16-60

16-56

16-49

16*44

16-88

16-88

16-27

18

19

17-64

17-58

17-58

17-47

17-41

17-85

17-29

17*28

17-18

19

20

18-57

18-51

18-45

18-89

18-82

18-26

18-20

18*14

18-06

20

21

19-50

19-48

19-87

19-81

19*24

19-17

19-11

19*06

18-98

21

22

20-48

20-86

20-29

20-28

2016

20*09

20*02

19*95

19-89

22

28

21-86

21-29

21-21

21-15

21-07

21-00

20-98

20-86

20-79

28

24

22-28

22-21

22-14

22-07

21-99

21*91

21*84

21*77

21-70

24

25

28-21

28-14

28-06

22*99

22-90

22-88

22*75

22*68

22-60

25

26

24-14

24-06

28-98

28-91

28-82

28-74

28-66

28-68

28-50

26

27

25-07

24-99

24-90

24-88

24-78

24-66

24-57

24-49

24-41

27

28

26-00

26-91

25-82

25-74

25-65

26-57

25-48

26-40

26-81

28

29

26-98

26-84

26-75

26-67

26-57

26-48

26*89

26-80

26-22

29

80

27-86

27-77

27-67

27-68

27-49

27*89

27-80

27-21

27*12

80

81

28-79

28-70

28-69

28-50

28-41

28*80

28-21

28-12

28*02

81

82

29-72

29-62

29-51

29-42

29-82

29*22

29-12

29-02

28-98

82

88

80-65

80-55

80-44

80-84

80-24

80*18

80*08

29*98

29-88

88

84

81-57

81-47

81-86

81-26

81*16

81*04

80-94

80-84

80-74

84

85

82-50

82-40

82-28

82-18

82-07

81-96

81-86

81-75

81-64

85

86

88-48

88-82

88-20

88-10

82-99

82-87

82-76

82-65

82-64

86

87

84-86

84-25

84-12

84-02

88-90

88*78

88*67

88*56

88-45

87

88

85-29

85-17

85-05

84-98

84-82

84-70

84*58

84*47

84-85

88

89

86-22

86-10

85-97

85-85

85*74

86-61

85-49

86-47

85-26

89

40

8M4

87-02

86-90

86'77

86*65

86-52

86-40

86-28

86-16

40

41

88-07

87-95

87-82

87-69

87-57

87-48

87-81

87*19

87-06

41

42

89-00

88-87

88-74

88-61

88-48

88-85

88-22

88-09

87-97

42

48

89-98

89-80

89-66

89*58

89*40

89*26

89-18

89-00

88-87

48

44

40-85

40-72

40-59

40-45

40*82

40-17

40-04

89-91

89*78

44

45

41-78

41-65

41-51

41-87

41*28

41-09

40-95

40-82

40*68

45

46

42-71

42-57

42-48

42*29

42-15

42*00

41-86

41-72

41*58

46

47

48-64

48-50

48-85

48-21

4806

42*91

42-77

42-68

42-49

47

48

44-57

44-42

44-27

44*12

48*98

48*88

48-68

48-54

48-89

48

49

45-50

45-85

45-19

45*04

44-89

44*74

44-59

44-44

44-80

49

50

46-48

46-28

46-12

45*97

45*81

45*66

45*51

45*85

46-20

60

REDUCTION OF THE VOLUME OF GASES 43

Contirmed,

gases to a temperature of 0* C — CatUinuMi.

0%
51

21%

22°.

28".

24".

26'.

26".

2r.

28".

29".

0".

47-86

47-20

47-04

46-89

46-78

46-67

46*42

46*26

46*10

61

52

48-29

48-18

47-96

47-81

47-64

47-49

47*88

47*16

47*01

62

58

49*22

49-06

48-89

48-78

48-66

48*40

48*24

48*07

47*91

68

54

50-14

49-98

49-81

49-66

49-48

49-81

49*16

48*98

48-82

64

55

51-07

50-91

60-78

60-67

50-89

60-28

60*06

49*89

49*72

66

56

52-00

61*88

61-66

61*49

61*81

61*14

60*97

80*79

60-62

66

67

52-98

52-76

62*68

62*41

62*22

52*06

61*88

61*70

61*58

67

58

^'S

58-68

68-60

58*82

68*14

62*97

62*79

62*61

62-48

68

59

54-79

64*61

64-42

64*24

64*06

58*88

68*70

58*61

68-84

69

60

55-72

65-58

65-84

66-16

64*97

64-79

64-61

64-42

64-24

60

61

56-65

66-46

66-26

66-08

66-89

66-70

56-62

66*88

66*14

61

62

57-58

57-88

67-19

57*00

66-80

56-62

56-48

56-28

66*06

62

68

58-51

68-81

68-11

57-92

67-72

57-68

67-84

57-14

66-96

68

64

59-42

69-28

69-08

68-84

68-64

68-44

68-26

58-06

67*86

64.

65

60-86

60-16

59-96

69-76

69-66

69-86

69-16

68-96

68-76

65

66

61-29

61-08

60-87

60-68

60-47

60-27

60-07

69*86

69-66

66

67

62-22

62-01

61-79

61-60

61-88

61-18

'60*98

60-7V

60*67

67

68

68-15

62-98

62-72

62-61

62-80

62-10

61-89

61-68

61*47

68

69

64-08

68-86

68-64

68-48

68-22

68-01

62-80

62-58

62*88

69

70

66-00

64-79

64-57

64-86

64-18

68-92

68-71

68-49

68-28

70

71

65-98

66-71

66-49

66-27

65-06

64-88

64*62

64*40

64-18

71

72

66-86

66-64

66-42

66-19

65*96

65*75

66-68

66-80

66-09

72

78

67-79

67-57

67-84

67-11

66-88

66-66

66-44

66*21

66*99

78

74

68-61

68-49

68-26

68-08

67-80

67-67

67*86

67-12

66-90

74

75

69-64

69-42

69-18

68-95

68-71

68-49

68-26

68-08

67-80

76

76

70-57

70-84

70-10

69-87

69*68

69-40

69-17

68*98

68-70

76

7T

71-60

71-27

71-08

70-79

70-64

70-81

70-08

69*84

69-61

77

78

72-48

72-19

n-96

71-70

71-46

71*22

70-99

70*75

70*61

78

79

78-86

78-12

72-87

72-62

72-88

72-14

71-90

71-66

71*42

79

80

74-29

74-04

78-79

78-84

78-80

78-05

72-81

72-56

72-82

80

81

76-22

74-97

74-71

74-46

74-22

78-96

78-72

78*47

78-22

81

82

76-16

76-89

75-68

76-88

76-18

74*88

74-68

74*87

74-18

82

88

77-08

76-82

76-66

76-80

76-05

75-79

75*64

76*28

75*08

88

84

78-00

77*74

77*48

77-22

76-96

76-70

76-46

76*19

76-94

84

85

78-98

78-67

78-40

78-14

77-88

77-62

77-86

77*10

76-84

86

86

79-86

79-69

79-82

79-06

78-80

78-68

78-27

78*00

77*74

86

87

80-79

80-62

80-26

79-98

79-71

79-44

79*18

78-91

78*66

87

88

81-72

81*44

81*17

80-90

80-68

80-86

80-09

79*82

79*66

88

89

82-66

82*87

82*09

81-82

81-66

81-27

81-00

80-72

80-46

89

90

88-57

88-80

88-02

82-74

82-46

82-18

81-91

81-68

81-86

90

91

84-50

84-22

88-94

88-66

88-88

88-09

82-82

82-64

82-26

91

92

86-48

85-16

84-86

84-68

84-29

84-01

88-78

88-44

88-17

92

98

86-86

8606

86-79

86-60

86-21

84-92

84-64

84-86

84-07

98

94

87-28

87-00

86-71

86-42

86-18

85-88

85-66

86-26

84-98

94

95

88-21

87-98

87-68

87-84

87-04

86-76

86-46

86-17

86-88

96

96

89-14

88-86

88-65

88-26

87-96

87-66

87-87

8707

86-78

96

97

90-07

89-78

89-48

89-18

88-87

88-57

88-28

87-98

• 87-69

97

98

91-00

90-70

90-40

90-09

89-79

89-48

89-19

88-89

88*69

98

99

91-98

91-68

91-82

91-01

90-71

90-40

90-10

89-79

89-60

99

100

92-86

92-65

92-24

91-98

91-62

91-81

91-01

90-70

90-40

100

TAALE 20^-CofUmiMd. 11. Table for reducing the

Deduct team the buometric pieeenie 1 mm. for tempentaie between 0° and 12*

for the expansion

780

no

712

714

716

718

720

722

724

726

728

760

1

0-984

0-987

0-940

0-942

0-945

0*947

0*950

0-958

0-966

0*958

1

2

1*868

1-874

1-879

1-884

1-890

1-896

1-900

1-905

1*911

1-916

2

8

2*808

2-810

2*818

2-896

2-884

2-842

2-850

2-868

2*866

2*874

8

4

8-788

8-747

8-768

8-768

8-779

8-789

8-800

8-810

8*821

8-882

4

6

4-672

4-686

4-697

4-711

4-724

4-786

4-750

4-768

4*777

4-790

5

6

6-607

6-621

6-687

6-668

6-669

6-684

6-700

6-716

6-782

6-747

6

7

6*640

6-668

6-677

6-696

6-614

6-681

6*660

6-668

6-687

6*706

7

8

7-474

7-494

7-616

7-687

7-668

7-678

7-600

7-621

7*642

7*668

8

9

8-400

8-481

8*466

8-4T9

8-608

8-626

8-660

8-678

8-698

8*621

9

10

9-84

9-87

9-40

9-42

9-46

9-47

9-50

9*58

9-66

9*58

10

11

10-28

10-81

10-84

10-86

10-89

10-42

10-46

10-48

10-51

10*54

11

12

11-21

11-24

11-27

11-80

11-84

11-87

11-40

11-48

11-46

11-60

12

18

12-14

12-18

12-21

12-24

12-28

12*81

12-86

12-88

12*41

12*45

18

14

18-06

18-12

18-16

18-19

18-28

18-26

18-80

18-84

18*87

18-41

14

16

14-02

14-06

14-10

14-18

14-17

14-21

14*26

14-29

14-88

14-87

15

16

14-96

14-99

16*08

16-07

15-11

15-16

16-20

16*24

16-28

16-88

16

17

16-88

16-98

16-98

16-02

16-06

16-10

16-16

16-19

16*28

16*28

17

18

16-82

16-87

16-92

16-96

17-01

17-05

17-10

17-16

17-19

17*24

18

19

17-76

17-81

17-86

17-90

17-95

18-00

18-06

18-10

18*16

18-21

19

20

18-68

18-74

18-79

18-84

18-90

18-96

19-00

19-05

19*11

19*16

20

21

19-62

19-68

19*78

19-78

19*84

19-90

19-96

20-00

20-06

20*12

21

22

20-66

20-61

20-67

20-72

20*78

20-84

20-90

20-96

21*01

21-07

22

28

21-49

21-66

21*61

21-66

21-78

21-79

21-86

21-91

21*97

22-08

28

24

22-48

22-49

22-66

22*61

22-68

22*74

22-80

22-86

22*92

22-99

24

26

28-86

28-42

28-49

28-65

28-62

28*69

28-75

28-81

28*88

28*96

26

26

24-29

24-86

24-48

24-50

24-57

24-64

24*70

24*77

24-88

24-90

26

72

26-28

26-80

25*87

25-44

25-61

25-58

26-66

26-72

26*79

26*86

27

28

26-16

26-28

26*80

26-87

26-46

26-58

26-60

26*67

26*74

26-82

28

29

27-10

27-17

27-24

27-81

27-40

27-48

27-65

27-62

27*70

27-78

29

80

28-08

28-10

28-18

28-26

28-84

28-42

28-60

28*58

28-66

28-74

80

81

28-97

29*04

29*12

29*20

29-29

29-87

29-46

29-58

29*62

29-70

81

82

29-90

29-98

80-06

80*14

80-28

80-82

80-40

80-48

80-57

80-66

82

88

80*88

80-91

81-00

81-08

81-17

81-26

81-85

81-48

81-62

81-61

88

84

81-77

81-86

81*94

82-08

82-12

82-21

82-80

82-89

82-48

82-67

84

86

82-71

82-79

82*88

82*97

88*07

88-16

88-25

88*84

88-44

88-68

85

86

88-64

88*78

88-82

88-91

84-01

84-10

84*20

84*29

84-89

84-49

86

87

84-67

84-66

84*76

84-86

84-96

85-05

86-15

85-25

86-86

86-46

87

88

86-60

85-60

86*70

86-80

85-90

86-00

86*10

86-20

86-80

86-40

88

89

86-44

86-64

86-64

86*74

86-85

86-95

87-06

87-16

87-26

87*87

89

40

87-88

87-48

87*68

87*68

87-79

87-89

88-00

88-10

88*21

88-82

40

41

88-81

88-41

88*52

88*62

88-74

88-84

88*95

89-05

8917

89*28

41

42

89-28

89-85

89-46

89*57

89-69

89*79

89-90

40-01

40*12

40-28

42

48

40-18

40*29

40-40

40-51

40*62

40*78

40-85

40-96

41*08

41-19

48

44

41-11

41-22

41-84

41-44

41-56

41-68

41-80

41-91

42*08

42-16

44

46

42-06

42-16

42-28

42*89

42-52

42-68

42-76

42-87

42*99

48-11

45

46

42-98

48-10

48*22

48-84

48-46

48*58

48-70

48*82

48-94

44-06

46

47

48-91

44-08

44-16

44*27

44-40

44-52

44-65

44-77

44-90

46-08

47

48

44-84

44-96

45-09

45*22

45-85

45-47

45*60

45-72

46-86

46-98

48

49

46-78

45-91

46-04

46*17

46-80

46-42

46-55

46-67

46-80

46-94

49

60

46-72

46-85

46-97

47-11

47*24

47*86

47-50

47-68

47*77

47-90

50

▼olumes of gases to a pressure of 7dO mm.

C, and 2 mm. between IS** and 19* C, 8 mm. between 10* and 26* C. to compensate
of meTeury.

760

710

712

714

716

718

720

722

724

726

728

760

61

47-66

47-79

47*92

48*06

48-18

48-81

48-46

48*60

48*78

48-S6

61

62

48-68

48-72

48*86

48-99

49*18

49-26

40-40

49-64

49*68

40*8t

62

68

40-62

49*66

49-79

49*98

60*07

60*21

60-86

60*48

50*64

60-78

68

64

60-46

50-60

50*78

50*87

61-01

61-15

61-80

61*44

61*69

61*78

54

66

61-88

61-68

51-67

51*82

61*96

52-10

62-26

52-89

62*64

62-60

65

56

62-82

62-47

52*61

62*76

62-01

58-06

68-20

68-86

68*60

68*66

66

67

68*26

58-41

58*65

68*70

68*86

54-00

64-15

54-80

54-46

64*60

57

68

54-10

54-84

54*40

54*64

54*79

54-94

55-10

65*25

55*41

66-66

68

60

56-18

55-28

65*48

65-59

65*74

65-89

56-06

56-21

56-87

56*62

59

60

66-07

66-22

66-87

66-58

56*69

56-84

57-00

67-16

67-82

67*47

60

61

57-00

57-16

67-81

67-47

57*68

67*79

57*96

68-11

68-27

68^

61

62

67-08

58-00

68-25

68-41

68*68

68*74

58*90

69-06

69*28

60*89

62

68

68-87

69-06

6919

59-85

69*62

69*68

50*85

60*01

60*18

60-86

68

64

69-80

69*96

60-18

60-80

60*47

60*68

60*80

60*07

61*14

61*80

64

66

60-74

60-90

61-07

61-24

61*41

61*58

61*76

61-92

62*00

62*26

66

66

61-67

61*84

62-01

62-18

62*85

62*62

62*70

62*87

68*05

68*22

66

67

62-60

62-77

62-96

68-12

68*80

68*47

68*66

68-82

64-00

64*18

67

68

68-54

68-71

68-89

6406

64*24

64*42

64*60

64*78

64-96

65*18

68

69

64-47

64-66

64-88

65-01

65-19

65*87

65*66

66*78

65-91

66*00

60

70

66-40

66-58

66-77

65-96

66-14

66-82

66*50

66*68

66-87

67*06

70

71

66-84

66-62

66-71

66-89

67-08

67-26

67*46

67-68

67-82

68*01

n

72

67-27

67-46

67*66

67-88

68-02

68-21

68*40

68*59

68*78

68*97

72

78

68-20

68-89

68*58

68-77

68-97

60-16

69-85

69*54

69*78

69*92

78

I*

60-14

69-88

69*58

69-72

69*92

70-11

70-80

70-49

70*69

70*88

74

76

70-or.

70-27

70*47

70-66

70-86

71-06

71-26

71-44

71*64

71-84

75

76

71-01

71-21

71-41

71-60

71*80

72-00

72-20

72-40

72-60

72-80

76

77

71-94

72-14

72*84

72-54

72*75

72-95

78-16

78-85

78-66

78-75

77

78

72-87

78-07

78*28

78-48

78*69

78-89

74-10

74-80

74-61

74-71

78

79

78-80

74-01

74*22

74-42

74*68

74-84

76-06

76-26

75*46

76*67

79

80

74-74

74-94

76*16

75-87

76-58

75-78

76-00

76-21

76*42

76*68

80

81

76-67

^t

76-10

76-81

76-68

76-74

76-06

77-16

77*87

77*68

81

82

76-60

77*04

77-25

77-47

77-68

77-90

78-11

78*88

78*64

82

88

77-64

77*76

77*98

78-19

78-41

78-68

78-86

79-07

79-28

79*50

88

84

78-47

78*69

78-91

79-18

79-86

79-57

79-80

80-02

80*24

80-46

84

86

79-41

79*68

79-86

80-06

80-81

80-58

80*76

80*97

81*19

81*41

86

86

80-84

80*57

80-80

81-02

81*25

81-47

81*70

81*92

82*16

82*87

86

87

81-28

81*50

81-74

81*96

8219

82-42

82*65

82*87

88*10

88*88

87

88

82*21

82*44

82*68

82-90

88*18

88-86

88-60

88*88

84*06

84*20

88

89

88-16

88*88

88*62

88*86

84-06

84-81

84*56

84*78

86*02

85*26

89

90

84-09

84-81

84-56

84-79

85-08

85-26

85*50

85*78

86*98

86*21

90

91

86-02

85-26

85-60

86-78

85-98

86-21

86*45

86*69

86*98

87*17

91

92

86-96

86*19

86*44

86*68

86-92

87-16

87-40

87*64

87-89

88*18

92

98

86-89

87*12

87*88

87*62

87-87

88-11

88*85

88*59

88-84

80*06

98

94

87-82

88*06

88*82

88*56

88-81

89-05

89*80

89*54

89-80

90*04

94

96

88-76

89*01

89*26

89*60

89-76

90-00

00*25

90*60

90*76

91*00

95

96

89-69

89*94

90*20

90*46

90-70

90-95

91-20

01*45

91*70

91*96

96

97

00-62

90*87

91*18

91-88

91-64

01-89

92*16

92*40

92*66

92*91

97

98

91-56

91*82

92*07

92*88

92-59

92-84

88*10

98*85

98*62

98*87

98

90

92-49

92*76

98*01

98*26

98-58

98-79

94-05

94*81

94*57

94*88

99

100

08*42

98*68

98*96

94*21

94-47

94-74

95-00

96*26

96-68

95*79

100

46 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 20^CatUmu4d. II. Table for reducing tbe

760

780

782

784

786

788

740

742

744

746

748

760

1

0*961

0-968

0-966

0-968

0-971

0-974

0-976

0*979

0-982

0-984

1

2

1-921

1-926

1-982

1-987

1-942

1-947

1-958

1-958

1-968

1*968

2

8

2-882

2-889

2-898

2-906

2-918

2-921

2-929

2-987

2-945

2-968

8

4

8-842

8-852

8-864

8-874

8-884

8*895

8-906

8-916

8-926

8-987

4

5

4-808

4-816

4-880

4-842

4-855

4-868

4-882

4-895

4-908

4*921

5

6

6-768

6-779

5-796

5-810

5-826

5-843

5*868

5-874

5-890

5-905

6

7

6-724

6-742

6-762

6-779

6-797

6-816

6-884

6-858

6-871

6-889

7

8

7-684

7-705

7-728

7-747

7-768

7-790

7-810

7-882

7-858

7-874

8

9

8-645

8-668

8-698

8-716

8-789

8-768

8-787

8-811

8-884

8*868

9

10

9-61

9-68

9-66

9-08

9-71

9-74

9-76

9-79

9-82

9-84

10

11

10-57

10-59

10-62

10-65

10-68

10-71

10-74

10-77

10-80

10-82

11

12

11-58

11-66

11-59

11-62

11-65

11-68

11-71

11-76

11-78

11-81

12

18

12-49

12-52

12-55

12-59

12-62

12-66

12-69

12-78

12-76

12-79

18

14

18-45

18-48

18-52

18-66

18-59

18-68

18-66

18-70

18-74

18-78

14

15

14-41

14-44

14-48

14-52

14-56

14-60

14-64

14-69

14-78

14-77

15

16

16-87

16-41

15-46

15-49

15-58

15-68

16-62

15-67

15-71

16-75

16

17

16-88

16-87

16*41

16-46

16-50

16-55

16-60

16-65

16-69

16-78

17

18

17-29

17-88

17-88

17-48

17-47

17-62

17-67

17-62

17-67

17-72

18

19

18-25

18-29

18-85

18-40

18-45

18-60

18-56

18-60

18-65

18-70

19

20

19-21

19-26

19-82

19-87

19-42

19-47

19-58

19-58

19-68

19-68

20

21

20-17

20-22

20-28

2084

20-89

20-44

20-60

20-56

20-61

20-66

21

22

21-18

21-19

21-25

21-81

21-86

21-42

21-48

21-54

21-69

21-66

22

28

2209

2216

22-21

22-27

22-88

22-89

22-45

22-51

22-57

22-64

28

24

28-05

28-11

23-18

28-24

28-80

28-80

28-48

28-60

28-56

28-68

24

25

24-01

24-07

24-14

24-21

24-27

24-84

24-41

24-48

24-54

24*61

25

26

24-97

25-04

25-11

25-18

25-24

26-81

26-88

25*45

26-52

25*59

26

27

26-98

26-00

26-07

26-14

26-21

26-28

26-86

26-48

26-50

26*58

27

28

26-89

26-96

27-04

27-12

27*18

27-26

27-88

27-41

27-48

27*56

28

29

27-85

27-92

28*00

28-08

28-15

28-28

28-81

28-89

28-47

28-55

29

80

28-82

28-89

28*97

29-05

29-18

29-21

29-29

29-87

29-45

29-58

80

. 81

29-78

29-86

29-94

8002

80-10

80-18

80-26

80-85

80-48

80*61

81

82

80-74

80-82

80-91

80-99

81-07

81-15

81-24

81-88

81-41

81*50

82

88

81-70

81-78

81*87

81-96

82-04

82-18

82-21

82-80

82:89

82-48

88

1 84

82-66

82-75

82*84

82-98

88 01

88-10

8819

88-28

88-87

88-46

84

85

88-62

88-71

88*80

88-89

88-98

84-07

84-17

84-27

84-86

84-45

86

86

84-58

84-67

84-77

84-86

84-95

86-06

85-15

85-25

85-84

86-48

86

87:

85-54

85-68

85-78

86-88

85-92

86-02

86-12

86-22

86*82

86-42

87

88!

86-50

86-60

86-70

86-80

86-90 .

87-00

87-10

87-20

87-80

87-40

88

89

87-47

87-57

87-67

87-77

87-87

87-97

88-07

88*18

88-28

88-89

89

40'

88-42

88-62

88-64

88-74

88-84

88-95

89-05

89-16

89-26

89-87

40

41-

89-88

89-48

89*60

89-71

89-81

89-92

40-02

40-14

40-24

40-86

41

42

40-84

40-44

40*56

40-68

40-78

40-89

41-00

41-12

41-22

41-84

42

i 48,

41-80

41-41

41-58

41-64

41-75

41-86

41-97

42-10

42-20

42-82

48

i 44.

42-27

42-88

42-50

42-62

42-78

42-84

42-95

48-07

4818

48-80

44

1 45;

48-22

48*84

48-46

48-58

48-69

48-81

48*98

44-06

44-17

44-29

45

1
46;

44-18

44*80

44-42

44*64

44-66

44-78

44;90

45-08

45-16

45-27

46

47 i

45-15

45-26

45-89

45-62

45-64

45-76

45-88

4601 .

46-18

46-26

47

1 ^1

46-10

46-28

46-86

46*49

46-61

46-78

46-86

46-99

47-12

47-24

48

! 49

47-06

47-19

47-82

47-44

47-67

47-70

47-88

47-97 :

48-10

48-28

49

i 50

48-08

48-16

48-80

48-42

48-56

48-68

48-82

48-95

49-08

49*21

50

.

_ . _, ..

—

—

-

HEBlUCTION. OF VOLUMES OF GASES

47

Toluiies of gases to 'a pressure of 760 ram^—Co mti mi u d.

700

780

782

784

786

788

740

742

744

746

748

760

51

4S-99

49-12

49*26

49*89

49*52

49*66

49*79

49-98

60*06

60*19

61

52

49*96

50*08

60*22

60-86

50-49

60*68

60*77

60-91

51-04

61*18

62

58

60*91

61-05

61*19

61-88

51*46

51*60

61*75

51-89

62*02

62-16

58

54

61*87

62-01

62-16

52-80

52-44

62*58

62*72

62-87

58-01

68-15

64

55

62*88

62*98

58*18

58-27

68*41

58-55

58*70

68-86

68-99

64*14

55

56

58*79

68-94

54*09

64*28

64*87

64-52

64*68

64-88

64-97

65*11

66

57

54*75

54*90

66-05

55-20

56-86

65-50

65-66

55-80

65*96

56*10

57

58

65*71

55-86

66-02

56-17

56-82

66-47

56-68

56*78

66*98

57-08

68

59

66*67

66-88

56-99

67-14

57-29

57*44

57-60

57-76

57*92

58-07

69

60

67*68

67-79

67-95

68*10

68-26

58-42

68-68

68*74

68-90

69-06

60

61

68*69

58-76

68-91

69-07

69*28

69*89

69-66

69*72

59-88

60-04

61

62

59*66

59-72

69-88

60-04

60-20

60*86

60*58

60-70

60*86

61-02

62

68

60*61

60-68

60*86

61*01

61-17

61-84

61-61

61-68

61*84

62-00

68

64

61*47

61-64

61*81

61-98

6215

62-82

62*49

62-66

62*82

62-99

64

65

62-48

62-60

62-77

62-94

6811

68*28

68*46

68*64

68*81

68-98

66

66

68-89

68-57

68-74

68-91

64-08

64-26

64*44

64*62

64-79

64-96

66

67

64*85

64-58

64-71

64*88

65*06

65-28

65*41

66-59

65*77

65-94

67

68

65*81

65*50

66*68

66*86

66*02

66*20

66-88

66*56

66*74

66-92

68

69

66*27

66*46

66*64

66-82

67*00

67*18

67*87

67*56

67*78

67-91

69

70

67*24

67-42

67*61

67-79

67-97

68*16

68*84

68*58

68*71

68*89

70

71

68*20

68-89

68-68

68*76

68-94

69*18

69-82

69*61

69-69

69*88

71

72

69*16

69-85

69-54

69*78

69*92

70*11

70*80

70*49

70-68

70*86

72

78

70*12

70-81

70-61

70-69

70*88

71*08

71-27

71*47

71-66

71-86

78

74

71*08

71-28

71-48

n-66

71*85

72*05

72*25

72*46

72-64

72-88

74

75

72*04

72-24

72-44

72-68

72*82

7802

78*22

78*42

78-62

78-82

76

76

78-00

78-20

78-40

78-60

78-80

74-00

74*20

74*40

74-60

74-80

76

77

78-96

74-17

74*87

74-57

74-77

74-97

75*18

75-89

75-69

76*79

77

78

74-98

75-12

75*88

75*68

75-74

76*95

76*16

76*87

76-67

76*77

78

79

75-88

7609

76*80

76-50

76*71

76-92

77*18

77-84

77*56

77*75

79

80

76-84

7706

77-27

77*47

77-68

77*90

78*10

78*82

78-58

78-74

80

81

77*80

78*02

78-28

78*44

78-65

78*87

7908

79-80

79-51

79-72

81

82

78-76

78-98

79*20

79*41

79-62

79*84

80-06

80-28

80-50

80*71

82

88

79-72

79-94

80-16

80*88

80*60

80-82

81*04

81-26

81-48

81-69

88

84

80-68

80-90

81-12

81*84

81-56

81*79

82*01

82*24

82*46

82-68

84

85

81*64

81-87

82-10

82*81

82*58

82*76

82*99

88*22

88*44

88-66

86

86

82-60

82-88

88-06

88*28

88*50

88-78

88*97

84*20

84-42

84-64

86

87

88-56

88-79

84-02

84-25

84*48

84*71

84-94

85*17

85-40

85-62

87

88

84-62

84-76

85*00

85*22

85*45

85*68

85*92

86-15

86-88

86-61

88

89

86*48

86*72

85-98

86*19

86*42

86-66

80*89

87-18

87*86

87-59

89

90

86-46

86*68

86*98

87*16

87*89

87*68

87*87

88*11

88*84

88*58

90

91

87-41

87*65

87*89

88-12

88*86

88*61

88*85

89*09.

89-88.

89-56

91

92

88-87

88-61

88*86

89-09

89*88

89*58

89*82

90-07

90*81

90*55

92

98

89-88

89-57

89-82

90*06

90-80

90*55

90*80

91-05

91-29

91-58

98

94

90*29

90*54

90-79

91*08

91*27

91*58

91*78

92-08

92-27

92-51

94

95

91*26

91*50

91-75

9200

92*25

92*50

92*76

98-00

98*25

98*50

95

96

92-21

92*46

9a*72

92*97

98-22

98-47

98-78

98-98

94*28

94-48

96

97

98-17

98-48

98*68

98-98

94*19

94*45

94-71

94-96

95*22

95-47

97

98

94*18

94-89

94*65

94*90

95*16

95*42

96*68

95-94

96*20

96-46

98

99

9609

95-86

95-61

96*87

96*18

96-89

96-66

96*92

97-18

97*48

99

100

96-05

96-82

96*58

96*84

97*11

97*87

97*68

97*89

98*16

98-42

100

48 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 20^0anHnued. II. Table for redudng the

760

760

762

764

766

768

762

764

766

768

770

760

1

0-987

0-989

0-992

0*996

0*997

1*008

1006

1*008

1-011

1-018

1

2

1-974

1-979

1-984

1*989

1*995

2*006

2*011

2*016

2-021

2-026

2

8

2-960

2-968

2-976

2*984

2*992

8*007

8*016

8*024

8*082

8-089

8

4

8-947

8*968

8*968

8-979

8*990

4*010

4*021

4*082

4*042

4062

4

5

4*984

4-947

4-960

4-974

4*987

6*018

6*026

5-040

6*068

6-066

5

6

6-921

6-987

6-962

6-968

6*984

6-016

6*082

6-047

6*068

6-079

6

7

6*908

6-926

6*944

6-968

6*982

7-018

7*087

7-066

7*074

7*092

7

8

7-894

7-916

7*986

7-968

7*979

8-021

8*042

8-068

8*084

8*106

8

9

8-881

8-906

8-929

8*962

8*977

9-028

9*048

9-071

9*095

9*119

9

10.

9-87

9-89

9-92

9*96

9*97

10-08

10*06

10-08

10*11

10*18

10

11

10-86

10-88

10*91

10-94

10*97

11*08

11*06

11-09

11*12

11*14

11

12

11-84

11-87

11-90

11*94

11*97

12-04

12*07

12-10

12*18

12*16

12

18

12-88

12-86

12-89

12*98

12*96

18*04

18*07

18-10

18*14

18*17

18

14

18-82

18*86

18*88

18*92

18*96

14*04

14*07

14-11

14*16

14*17

14

16

14-81

14*84

14*87

14*92

14*96

16*04

15*08

15-12

16-16

16*19

15

16

16-79

16*88

16*87

15*91

15*96

16*06

16*09

16-18

16-17

16*21

16

17

16-78

16*82

16-86

16*91

16*96

17*06

1709

17-14

17-18

17*22

17

18

17-77

17*81

17-86

17*90

17*96

18*06

18*10

18-16

18-19

18-28

18

19

18-76

18*80

18-85

18*90

18*96

19*06

19*10

19-16

19-20

19-26

19

20

19-74

19-79

19-84

19*89

19*96

20*05

20*11

20-16

20-21

20-26

20

21

20-72

20-77;

20*88

20*89

20*94

21-05

21*11

21-17

21*22

21*27

21

23

21-71

21-76

21-82

21*88

21*94

22-06

22*12

22-18

22*28

22-28

22

28

22-70

22-76

22*81

22*88

22*94

28*06

28*12

28-18

28*24

28-80

28

24

28-69

28-74

28-80

28*87

28*98

24-06

24*18

24-19

24*25

24-81

24

25

24-67

24-78

24-80

24*87

24*98

25*06

25*18

25-20

25*26

26-82

25

26

26-66

26-72

25*79

26*86

26*98

26*06

26*14
27*16

26*21

26-27

26-84

26

27

26-65

26*71

26*78

26*86

26*98

27*07

27-22

27*28

27*85

27

28

27-68

27*70

27*77

27*86

27-92

28*07

28*16

28-28

28*29

28-86

28

29

28-62

28*69

28*76

28*84

28-92

29*07

29*16

29*24

29*80

29*87

29

80

29*60

29-68

29*76

29*84

29-92

80*07

80*16

80*24

80*82

80*89

80

81

80-69

80-67

80*75

80*84

80-92

81*08

81*17

81*26

81*88

81*41

81

82

81-68

81-66

81*74

81-88

81-92

82-08

82*17

82*26

82*84

82*42

82

88

82-66

82*66

82*78

82*82

82*91

88-08

88*18

88*27

88*86

88-48

83

84

88-66

88*64

88*78

88*82

88-91

84*09

84*18

84*28

84*86

84-46

84

86

84-64

84-68

84-72

84*88

84*91

86*09

85*19

86-28

86*87

86-46

85

86

86-62

86*62

85-71

86*81

86*91

86*09

86*19

86-29

86*88

86*47

86

87

86-61

86-61

86-71

86*81

86*90

87-09

87*20

87-80

87*89

87*49

87

88

87-60

87*60

87-70

87*80

87*90

88*10

88*20

88-80

88*40

88*60

88

89

88-49

88*69

88-69

88*80

88*90

89*10

89*21

89-81

89*41

89*61

89

40

89-47

89*58

89-68

89*79

89*90

40*10

40*21

40-82

40*42

40*52

40

41

40-46

40*56

40-67

40*79

40*89

41*11

41*22

41-88

41*48

41*64

41

42

41-44

41*55

41-66

41*78

41*89

42*11

42*22

42-84

42*44

42-66

42

48

42-48

42*64

42-66

42*78

42*89

48*11

48*28

48*86

48*46

48*66

48

44

48-42

48-58

48-66

48*77

48*89

44*12

44*28

44*86

44*46

44*68

44

46

44-40

44*52

44-64

44*76

44*88

45*12

46*24

46*86

46-47

46*69

45

46

45-89

46*61

45-68

45*76

45*88

46*12

46*24

46*86

46-48

46*60

46

47

46-88

46*50

46-68

46*76

46*88

47*12

47*26

47-88

47-49

47*61

47

48

47-86

47*49

47-62

47*76

47*87

48*18

48*26

48-89

48-61

48*68

48

49

48-86

48*48

48-61

48*74

48*87

49*18

49*26

49-40

49-62

49*64

49

60

49-84

49*47

49-60

49*74

49*87

50*18

50-26

60-40

60-68

60*66

60

REDUCTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES 49

Yolumes of gases to a pressure of 760 mm. — Continued.

760

760

752

764

766

758

762

764

766

768

770

760

51

50-88

50-46

50-60

60*74

60*87

61*14

61*27

61*41

61*54

61*67

51

62

51-82

51-45

51-69

61*78

61*87

52*14

62-28

62*42

52*56

62-68

52

53

52-80

52-44

52*58

62*78

52*87

68-14

58*28

68'42

68-66

68*70

68 -

54

58*29

58-48

68-57

58-72

68*86

54*14

64*28

64*48

64*67

64*72

64

55

64-28

54-42

64-66

64-71

54*86

56*16

65*29

65-44

65-68

56*78

55

56

56-26

55-41

65-66

66-71

56-86

56*16

56*29

56-46

56*59

56-74

56

57

56-26

56-40

56-66

66-70

56*85

57*15

67*80

67-45

67-60

57*76

67

58

67-24

67-89

67-54

67-69

57*86

58*15

58*80

58*46

68*61

68-77

68

59

68-22

58-88

58-68

58*69

58-85

59*16

59*81

59*47

59-62

59-78

69

60

69-21

59-87

69-62

59*68

59*84

60-16

60*82

60*47

60*63

60-79

60

61

60-20

60-86

60-62

60-68

60-84

61*16

61*82

61*48

61*64

61-81

61

62

61-19

61-86

61*51

61-67

61-84

62-16

62*88

62-49

62*66

62*82

62

68

62-17

62-84

62-60

62-67

62-88

68-17

68*88

63-60

63-67

68*84

68

64

68-16

68-88

68-49

68-66

68-88

64-17

64*84

64-51

64*68

64*85

64

65

64-16

64-82

64-49

64-66

64-88

66-17

65*84

66-61

66*69

66-86

66

66

65-18

65-81

65-48

65*66

65-82

66-17

66*85

66*52

66-70

66-88

66

67

66-12

66-80

66-47

66*64

66-82

67-18

67-85

67*68

67-71

67-89

67

68

67-10

67-29

67-46

67-64

67-82

68-18

68*86

68*64

68-72

68-90

68

69

68-09

68-28

68-45

68*68

68-82

69*18

69-36

69-54

69-78

69-91

69

70

69-08

69-26

69-44

69*68

69-82

70*18

70-87

70-65

70-74

70-92

70

71

70-07

70-25

70-48

70*62

70-81

71*19

71-87

71-56

71-75

71-94

71

72

71-05

71-24

71-48

71*62

71-81

72*19

72-88

72-57

72-76

72-96

72

73

72-04

72-28

72-42

72-61

72-81

78*19

73-88

78-57

78-77

73-97

73

74

78-08

78-22

78-41

78-61

78-80

74*19

74*39

74-68

74-78

74-98

74

75

74-01

74-21

74-40

74-60

74-80

75*20

76-89

75-59

75-79

1 ^a ■>

75-99

76

76

76-00

75-20

75-40

76-60

76-80

76*20

76*40

76-60

76-80

77-01

76

77

76-99

76-19

76-89

76-69

76-79

77*20

77*40

77-60

77-81

78-02

77

78

76-97

77-18

77-88

77-58

77*79

78-20

78*41

78-61

78-82

79-03

78

79

77*96

78-17

78-87

78-58

78-79

79*21

79*41

79-62

79-88

80*04

79

80

78-94

79-16

79-86

79-68

79-79

80*21

80*42

80-63

80-84

81-06

80

81

79-98

80-15

80-86

80-67

80*79

81*21

81*42

81*64

81-85

82-07

81

82 1 80*92

81-14

81-85

81-56

81*78

82*21

82*48

82*65

82-87

88-09

82

83

81-91

82*18

82-84

82-56

82*78

88*22

88*44

83*66

88-88

84-10

88

84

82-90

88-12

88-84

88-56

88*78

84*22

84*44

84-66

84-89

85-11

84

85

83-88

84-11

84*88

84-55

84*78

86*22

85*45

86-67

86-90

86-18

86

86

84-87

85-10

85-82

85-55

86*78

86*22

86*46

86-67

86-91

87-14

86

87

85-85

86-08

86*81

86-64

86-77

87*28

87-56

87-68

87-92

88-16

87

88

86-84

87-07

87-80

87-64

87-77

88-28

88-47

88-69

88*98

89-17

88

89

87-82

88-06

88-29

88*58

88*77

89-28

89-47

89*70

89*94

90-18

89

90

88*81

89-06

89-29

89-52

89*77

90*28

90-48

90-71

90*95

91-19

90

91

89-80

90-04

90-28

90*52

90*76

91*24

91-48

91*72

91*96

92-21

91

92

90-79

91-08

91*27

91-51

91-76

92*24

92-49

92-78

92*97

98-22

92

98

91-77

92-02

92-26

92-51

92-76

98*24

93*49

98-74

93*98

94-28

98

94

92-76

98-01

98*26

98-50

98*75

94*24

94-49

94*74

94-99

95-24

94

95

98-74

94-00

94*25

94-50

94*76

95*25

95*50

96-75

96*00

96-26

96

96

94-78

94-98

96-24

96-49

96*75

96*25

96*51

96*76

97-01

97-27

96

97

95-72

96-97

96*28

96*49

96*75

97*25

97*51

97*77

98-02

98*29

97

98

96-70

96-96

97*22

97-48

97*74

98*25

98*62

98*77

99-08

99*80

98

99

97-69

97-95

98*21

98-48

98*74

99-26

99*52

99-78

100-04

100*81

99

100

98-68

98-95

99-21

99-47

99*74

100*26

100*58

100*79

101*06

101*82

100

D

48 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

TABLE 20— Oon^tHMd. II. TaUe for redndiig the

760

760

762

764

766

758

762

764

766

768

770

760

1

0-987

0-989

0*992

0-995

0*997

1*008

1-005

1-008

1-011

1*018

1

2

1-9T4

1-979

1*984

1*989

1*996

2*005

2*011

2-016

2-021

2-026

2

8

2-960

2*968

2-976

2-984

2*992

8-007

8-016

8-024

8082

8-089

8

4

8-947

8-968

8-968

8*979

8*990

4*010

4-021

4*082

4-042

4-062

4

5

4-984

4-947

4-960

4-974

4*987

6*018

6-026

6-040

6-068

6*066

6

6

6*921

6-987

6-952

6-968

6*984

6*016

6-082

6-047

6-068

6*079

6

7

6-908

6-926

6-944

6-968

6*982

7*018

7-087

7-066

7-074

7*092

7

8

7*894

7-916

7*986

7*958

7*979

8*021

8-042

8-068

8064

8*106

8

9

8-881

8*905

8*929

8*952

8*977

9*028

9-048

9*on

9-095

9*119

9

10.

9-87

9-89

9*92

9*96

9-97

10*08

10-06

10-06

10-11

10*18

10

11

10-85

10-88

10-91

10*94

10-97

1108

11-06

11-09

11*12

11*14

11

12

11-84

11-87

11*90

11*94

11-97

12*04

12-07

12-10

12*18

12*16

12

18

12-88

12-86

12*89

12*98

12*96

18*04

18-07

18*10

1814

18-17

IS

14

18-82

18-85

18*88

18*92

18*96

14*04

14-07

14*11

14*16

14-17

14

16

14-81

14-84

14*87

14*92

14*96

16*04

16-08

16*12

16*16

16-19

15

16

16-79

15-88

16*87

16-91

16*95

16*06

16-09

1618

16*17

16-21

16

IT

16-78

16-82

16*86

16*91

16*95

17*06

17-09

17*14

17*18

17*22

17

18

17-77

17-81

17*85

17*90

17-95

18*06

18*10

18*16

18*19

18*28

18

19

18-76

18-80

18*86

18*90

18*96

19*06

19*10

19*16

19-20

19-26

19

20

19-74

19-79

19*84

19*89

19*96

20*05

20*11

20*16

20*21

20*26

20

21

20-72

20*77;

20*88

20*89

20*94

21-06

21*11

21*17

21*22

21*27

21

28

21-71

21-76

21*82

21*88

21-94

22-06

2212

22*18

22*28

22*28

22

28

22-70

22-76

22-81

22*88

22-94

28-06

28*12

28*18

28*24

28*80

2S

24

28-69

28-74

28-80

28-87

28-98

24-06

24*18

24*19

24*26

24*81

24

25

24-67

24-78

24-80

24-87

24-98

25-06

25*18

25*20

26-26

26*82

25

S6

26-66

25-72

25*79

26-86

25-98

26*06

26*H

26*21

26-27

26*84

26

27

26-66

26-71

26*78

26-86

26-98

27*07

27*16

27*22

27-28

27*85

27

28

27-68

27-70

27-77

27-85

27-92

28*07

28*16

28*28

88-29

28*86

28

29

28-62

28-69

28-76

28-84

28-92

29-07

29*16

29*24

29-80

29*87

29

80

29-60

29-68

29-76

29-84

29*92

80*07

80-16

80*24

80-82

80*89

80

81

80-59

80-67

80-76

80-84

80*92

81*08

81-17

81*26

81*88

81-41

81

82

81-68

81-66

81-74

81-88

81*92

82-08

82-17

82*26

82*84

82-42

82

88

82-66

82-65

82*78

82-82

82-91

88*06

88-18

88*27

88*85

88-48

SS

84

88-55

88-64

88-78

88-82

88*91

84*09

84*18

84*28

84*86

84-45

84

86

84-54

84-68

84-72

84-82

84-91

86-09

85-19

85*28

85*87

85-46

85

86

85-52

86-62

85-71

85-81

85-91

86*09

8619

86*29

86*88

86-47

86

87

86-51

86-61

86-71

86-81

86-90

87*09

87*20

87-80

87*89

87-49

87

88

87-50

87-60

87*70

87-80

87-90

88*10

88-20

88-80

88*40

88-60

88

89

88-49

88*69

88-69

88-80

88-90

89*10

89-21

89-81

89*41

89-61

89

40

89-47

89*68

89-68

89-79

89-90

40*10

40-21

40*82

40*42

40-62

40

41

40*46

40*66

40-67

40-79

40*89

41*11

41*22

41*88

41*48

41-64

41

42

41*44

41*56

41-66

41-78

41*89

42*11

42-22

42*84

42*44

42-56

42

48

42-48

42*64

42-66

42-78

42*89

48*11

48*28

48-85

48-45

48-66

48

44

48*42

48*58

48*65

48-77

48*89

44*12

44-28

44-85

44-46

44*68

44

45

44-40

44*62

44*64

44-76

44*88

45*12

46-24

46*86

45-47

46*59

45

46

45-89

45*61

46*68

45*76

45*88

46*12

46-24

46*86

46*48

46*60

46

47

46-88

46*50

46*68

46-76

46*88

47*12

47-26

47*88

47-49

47*61

47

48

47-86

47*49

47*62

47*76

47*87

48*18

48-26

48*89

48-61

48*68

48

49

48-86

48*48

48*61

48*74

48*87

49*18

49-26

49*40

49*52

49*64

49

60

49-84

49*47

49*60

49*74

49*87

50*18

50-26

50-40

60*68

60-66

50

REDUCTION OF VOLUMES OF GASES 49

volumes of gases to a pressure of 760 mm. — Continued,

760

7S0

762

764

766

768

762

764

766

768

no

760

61

60-88

50*46

50-60

60-74

60-87

61-14

61-27

61*41

51*64

61-67

61

62

61-82

51-46

61-69

61-78

61-87

62-14

62-28

62*42

62-65

62-68

62

68

62-80

62-44

62-58

62-78

62-87

68-14

68-28

68-42

58-66

68*70

68 -

54

58-29

68-48

68-67

68-72

68-86

64*14

64-28

64-48

64-67

64*72

64

65

54-28

54-42

64-66

64-71

64*86

65*16

66-29

65*44

56*68

66*78

66

56

55-26

66-41

66-66

66-71

66-86

56*16

66-29

66*45

66-69

66*74

66

57

66-25

56-40

66-66

66-70

66-85

67*16

67-80

67*46

67-60

67-76

67

68

67-24

67-89

67-64

67-69

67-86

58*16

68-80

68*46

68*61

68-77

68

59

58-22

68-88

68-68

68-69

58-85

59*16

69*81

69*47

69*62

69*78

69

60

69-21

69-87

69-62

69-68

69-84

60*16

60-82

60-47

60-68

60*79

60

61

60-20

60-86

60-82

60-68

60-84

61-16

61-82

61*48

61*64

61-81

61

62

61-19

61-86

61-61

61-67

61-84

62-16

62-88

62*49

62*65

62-82

62

68

62-17

62-84

62-60

62-67

62-88

68-17

63*88

68*60

68*67

68*84

68

64

68-16

68-88

68*49

68-66

68-88

64-17

64*84

64*61

64-68

64-86

64

65

64-15

64-82

64-49

64-66

64*88

6617

65-84

66-61

65*69

66-86

66

66

65-18

65-81

66-48

66-66

65*82

66-17

66-85

66-62

66*70

66-88

66

67

66-12

66-80

66-47

66-64

66*82

67*18

67-85

67-68

67-71

67-89

67

68

67-10

67-29

67-46

67-64

67-82

68-18

68-86

68*64

68*72

68*90

68

69

68-09

68-28

68-46

68-68

68*82

69-18

69*86

69*64

69*78

69*91

69

70

69-08

69-26

69-44

69-68

69-82

70-18

70-87

70*65

70*74

70*92

70

71

70-07

70-28

70-48

70-62

70*81

71-19

71*87

71*56

71*76

71*94

71

72

71-06

71-24

71-48

71-62

71*81

72-19

72*88

72*57

72*76

72*95

72

73

72-04

72-28

72-42

72-61

72*81

78-19

78*88

78*67

78*77

78*97

78

74

78-03

78-22

78-41

78-61

78-80

74-19

74-39

74*68

74*78

74-98

74

75

74-01

74-21

74-40

74-60

74*80

76*20

76-89

76*69

76*79

76*99

76

76

76-00

76-20

76-40

76-60

75-80

76-20

76-40

76*60

76*80

77*01

76

77

76-99

76-19

76-89

76-69

76*79

77-20

77-40

77*60

77-81

78*02

77

78

76-97

77-18

77-88

77-68

77*79

78*20

78-41

78*61

78*82

79*08

78

79

77-96

78-17

78-87

78-68

78*79

79-21

79*41

79*62

79*88

80*04

79

80

78-94

79-16

79-86

79-68

79*79

80-21

80-42

80-68

80*84

81*06

80

81

79-98

80-16

80-86

80-67

80*79

81-21

81-42

81-64

81-85

82-07

81

82

80-92

81-14

81-86

81-66

81*78

82-21

82-43

82-66

82*87

88-09

82

83

81-91

82-18

82-84

82-66

82-78

88-22

88-44

88-66

88*88

84-10

88

84

82-90

88-12

88-84

88-66

88*78

84*22

84*44

84-66

84*89

85-11

84

85

88-88

84-11

84-88

84-55

84*78

86*22

86-45

86*67

86*90

86-18

85

86

84-87

85-10

86-82

85*55

86*78

86-22

86-46

86-67

86*91

87*14

86

87

85-85

86-06

86-81

86-54

86*77

87-28

87-66

87-68

87*92

88-16

87

88

86-84

87-07

87-80

87*64

87*77

88*28

88*47

88-69

88*98

89*17

88

89

87-82

88-06

88-29

88*58

88-77

89-28

89-47

89-70

89*94

90-18

89

90

88-81

89-06

89-29

89*62

89-77

90*28

90*48

90-71

90-96

91*19

90

91

89-80

90-04

90-28

90*62

90-76

91-24

91-48

91-72

91-96

92*21

91

92

90-79

91-08

91-27

91-61

91*76

92-24

92-49

92*78

92*97

98-22

92

98

91-77

92-02

92-26

92-51

92-76

98-24

93-49

98*74

98-98

94*28

98

94

92-76

98-01

98-26

98-60

98-76

94*24

94*49

94*74

94-99

96*24

94

95

98-74

94-00

94-25

94-60

94*76

96*25

96*60

96*75

96*00

96*26

96

96

94-78

94-98

96-24

96*49

96*75

96-25

96*61

96*76

97*01

97*27

96

97

95-72

95-97

96-28

96-49

96-75

97-26

97-61

97*77

98*02

98*29

97

98

96-70

96*96

97-22

97-48

97-74

98*25

98*62

98*77

99*08

99*80

98

99

97-69

97-96

98-21

98-48

98*74

99-26

99*62

99*78

100-04

100-81

99

100

98-68

98-96

99-21

99*47

99-74

100-26

100*68

100*79

101*06

101*82

100

D

50 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLB 21.— FACTORS FOR REDUCING A

TBMPBRATURS

0* Centigrade, and 760 millimetres, or 32'

Oentigrade.

00.

1-1.

2-2.

8-3.

4-4.

5-6.

6-7.

7-8.

8-9. 1

Fabrenheit.

82%

84%

86*.

88'.

40*.

42*.

44*.

46°.

48*.

In.

Hilli-

metres.

27-6

698-6

-9191

•9154

•9116

•9079

•9048

•9007

•8972

•8086

•8899

27-6

701-0

•9224

•9188

•9149

•9112

•9076

•9089

•9006

•8969

•8982

27-7

708-6

•9268

•9221

•9188

•9145

•9109

•9072

•9087

•9001

•8964

27-8

706-1

•9291

•9264

•9216

•9179

•9142

•9105

•9070

•0084

•8996

27-9

708-6

•9825

•9288

•9249

•9212

•9174

•9188

•0102

•0067

•9029

28*0

711-2

•9868

•9821

•9282

•9244

•9208

•9170

•9185

•0099

•9061

28*1

718-7

•9891

•9864

•9315

•9278

•9241

•9208

•9167

•9181

•9098

28*2

716-8

•9425

•0887

•9848

•9810

•9278

•9286

•0200

•9164

•9126

28*8

718-8

•9468

•9421

•9862

•9844

•9806

•9269

•9«88

•9197

•9158

28-4

721-8

•9491

•9454

•9415

•9877

•9889

•9801

•9265

•9229

•9190

28*6

728-9

-9626

•9487

•9448

•9410

•9872

•9884

•9298

•9262

-93S

28-6

726-4

-9668

•9620

•9481

•9448

•9406

•9867

•9831

•9294

•9866

28-7

728-9

•9692

•9564

•9614

•9476

•9488

•9400

•9864

•9827

•9287

28-8

781-6

-9626

•9687

•9547

•9609

•9471

•9482

-9396

•9859

•9S20

28-0

784-0

-9669

•9620

•9580

-9542

•9504

•9466

-9429

•9392

•9862

29-0

786-6

•9692

•9654

•9618

•9675

•9636

•9498

•9462

•9424

•9886

29-1

789-1

•9726

•9687

•9647

•9608

•9569

•9681

•9494

•9467

•9417

29*2

741-6

•9769

•9720

•9680

•9640

•9602

•9563

•9627

•0489

29*8

744-2

•9792

•9768

•9718

•9674

-9685

•9596

•9669

•0622

•9481

29-4

746-7

•9826

•9787

•9746

•9707

•9668

•9629

•9692

•0664

•9514

29-5

749-3

•9869

•9820

•9779

•9740

•9701

•9662

•9624

•0587

•9546

29-6

761-8

•9898

•9858

•9812

•9778

•9788

•9694

•9657

-0610

•9678

29-7

764-8

•9926

•9887

•9845

•9806

•9766

•9727

•9690

•0662

•9611

29-8

756-9

•9969

•9920

•9879

•9889

•9800

•9760

•9722

•0684

•9648

29-9

769-4

•9998

•9964

•9912

-9872

•9882

•9793

•9756

•0717

•9676

80-0

762-0

1^0026

•9987

-9945

'9906

•9865

•9826

•9788

•0749

•9708

80-1

764-6

1-0060

1^0020

-9978

•9988

•9898

•9858

•0820

•0782

•9740

80-2

767-0

1-0093

1-0068

1-0011

-9971

•9981

•9891

•9858

•0814

•9778

80S

769-6

1-0126

1-0086

1-0044

1-0004

•9964

•9924

•9885

•0846

-9806

80-4

772-1

1-0160

1-0120

1-0078

1-0087

•9997

•9957

•9918

•0870

•9887

80-6

774-7

1«0194

1-0158

1-0111

1-0070

1-0080

•9989

•9960

•0911

•9870

80-6

777-2

1-0227

1-0186

1-0144

1-0108

1^0068

1^0022

•9988

•0044

•990S

80-7

779-7

1-0260

1-0220

1-0177

1-0186

1-0096

1^0055

1-0016

•0076

•9985

80-8

782-8

1-0294

1-0268

1-0210

1-0169

1-0128

1^0087

1^0048

1-0000

•9967

80-9

784-8

1-0827

1^0286

1-0248

1-0202

1-0164

1^0120

l^OOSl

1^0041

l-OOOO

81-0

. 787-4

1-0860

1*0819

1-0276

1-0285

1-0194

1^0168

1-0114

1^0074

1-0082

.- .

-

—

I UNIVERSITY

NO RSTAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE 51

OIVBN VOLUME OF GAS TO NORMAL
AND PRBSSURB.

Fahrenheit, and 29*92 inches barometric pressure.

Oentigrade.

10*0.

11-1.

12-2.

18^3.

14^4.

16^6.

16-7.

17^8.

Fahrenheit.

60".

62".

64".

66".

68".

60*.

62".

64".

^.

MiUi-

In.

metres.

27-6

698-6

•8867

•8882

•8797

•8768

•8728

•8695

•8661

•8628

27-6

701*0

•8900

•8864

•8829

•8706

•8760

•8726

•8698

•8660

27-7

708*6

•8982

•8897

•8861

•8827

•8792

•8768

•8724

•8691

27-8

706-1

•8064

•8028

•8898

•8860

•8828

•8790

•8766

•8722

27-»

708-6

•8996

•8060

•8926

•8800

•8866

•8821

•8787

•8754

28-0

711-2

•9029

•8902

•8967

•8023

•8887

•8868

•8819

•8785

28-1

718*7

•9060

•9026

•8989

•8964

•8919

•8884

•8860

•8818

28-2

716*8

•9098

•9067

•9021

•8986

•8961

•8916

•8882

•8848

28-8

718-8

•9126

•9089

•9068

•9018

•8988

•8948

•8918

•8870

28*4

721-8

•9167

•9121

•9066

•9060

•9014

•8979

•8946

•8911

28*6

728*9

•9189

•0168

-9117

•9082

•9046

•9011

•8976

-8942

28-6

726*4

•9222

•0186

•9149

•9114

•0077

•9048

•9006

-8978

28-7

728*9

•9264

•0218

•9181

•0146

•0100

•9074

•9089

•9006

28*8

781*6

•9286

•0260

•9218

•9177

•9141

•9196

•9071

•9080

28*9

784*0

•9818

•9282

•9246

•9209

•0178

•9188

•9102

•9067

29-0

786-6

•0861

•9814

•9277

•9241

•0205

•9169

•9184

•9099

291

789*1

•0888

•9846

•9809

•9278

•0286

•9201

•9165

•0180

29*2

741*6

•0416

•9878

•9841

•9806

•0268

•9288

•9197

-0162

29*8

744*2

•0448

•9410

•9878

•0886

•0800

•9264

•9228

•0108

29-4

746*7

•0480

•9448

•0406

•9868

•9882

•9296

•9260

•0224

29*6

749*8

•0612

•9476

•0487

•9400

•9868

•0828

•9291

•0256

29-0

761*8

•0644

•9606

•0460

•0482

•9896

•0859

•9828

•0287

29-7

764*8

•0677

•9689

•0601

•0464

•9427

•9890

•9864

•0818

29*8

766*9

•0600

•9671

•9688

•0406

•9469

•9422

•9886

•9860

29*9

769*4

•9641

•9608

•9666

-9628

•9490

•9454

•9417

•9881

80*0

762*0

•0678

•0686

•0607

•9660

•9622

•9486

•9449

•9418

SO-1

764-6

•0706

•0667

•0620

•9601

•9664

•9617

•9480

•9444

80-2

767*0

•0788

-0700

•0661

•0628

•9586

•0640

•9612

•9475

80*8

769*6

•0770

•0781

•0608

•0666

•0617

•0680

•9548

•9607

80*4

772-1

-0802

•0764

•0726

•0687

-0640

•0612

•9676

-9688

'80*6

774*7

•9886

•0706

•0767

•0710

•0681

•0648

•9606

•9669

80*6

777*2

•9867

•9828

•0780

•0761

•0712

•0676

•9688

•9601

80*7

779*7

•0800

•9860

•0821

•0782

•0744

•0707

•9669

•9682

80-8

782*8

•0081

•9892

•0868

•9816

•0776

•0788

•9701

•9664

80-9

784*8

•0068

•9924

•0886

•9846

•0807

•0770

•9782

•9695

81-0

787*4

•0006

•9966

•0017

•9878

•9840

•9801

•9764

•9726

52 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 2l—C<mtiny^,

Oentigrade.

18-9

20.

21-1.

22-2.

28-3.

24-4.

26-6.

26-7.

Fahrenheit.

66°.

68°.

70°.

72°.

74°.

76°.

78°.

80*.

In.

Milli-

metres.

87-6

698*6

*8696

•8668

•8580

•8498

•8466

•8485

•8408

•8872

27-6

701-0

•8626

•8694

•8661

•8629

•8497

•8466

•8484

•8408

27-7

708-6

*8668

-8625

•8692

•8660

•8628

•8496

•8464

•8488

27-8

706-1

-8689

•8666

•8628

•8591

•8659

•8627

•8495

•8468

27-9

708-6

•8720

•8687

•8654

•8622

•8689

•8667

•8626

•8494

280

711-2

-8751

•8718

•8686

•8668

•8620

•8588

•8666

•8624

281

718-7

-8788

•8760

•8716

•8684

•8661

•8619

•8687

•8866

28-2

716-8

-8814

•8781

-8747

•8714

•8682

•8649

•8617

•8685

28-3

718-8

•8846

•8812

-8778

•8746

•8718

-8680

•8648

•8616

28-4

721-3

•8876

•8848

•8809

•8776

•8748

•8711

•8678

•864C

28*6

728-9

•8908

•8874

•8840

•8807

-8774

•8t41

•8709

•8677

28*6

726-4

•8989

•8905

•8872

•8888

•8805

•8772

•8789

•8707

28-7

728-9

-8970

•8986

•8908

•8869

•8886

-8808

•8770

•8788

28-8

781-6

•9002

•8968

•8984

•8900

•8866

-8888

•8800

•8768

28-9

784-0

•9088

•8999

•8965

•8981

•8897

•8864

•8881

•8798

29-0

786-6

•9064

•9080

•8996

•8962

•8928

•8895

•8862

•8820

291

789-1

•9096

•9061

•9027

•8998

•8969

•8925

•8892

•8869

29*2

741-6

*9127

•9092

•9068

•9028

•8990

•8956

•8928

•8890

29*8

744-2

•9168

•9128

•9089

•9064

•9020

-8987

•8968

•8920

29-4

746-7

•9189

•9164

•9120

•9085

•9061

-9017

•8984

•8961

29-6

749-8

•9220

•9186

*9161

•9116

•9082

•9048

•9014

•8981

29-6

761-8

•9262

•9217

•9182

•9147

•9118

•9079

•9046

•9012

29-7

764-8

•9288

•9248

•9218

•9178

•9144

•9109

•9076

•9042

29-8

866-9

•9814

•9279

•9244

•9209

•9174

•9140

•9106

•9072

29-9

769*4

•9845

•9810

•9276

•9240

•9206

•9171

•9187

•9108

80-0

762-0

•9877

•9841

•9806

•9271

-9286

•9201

•9167

•9188

80-1

764-6

•9408

•9872

•9337

•9802

-9267

•9282

•9198

-9164

80-2

767-0

•9489

•9408

•9868

•9888

•9297

•9268

•9228

•9194

80-8

769*6

•9470

•9486

•9329

•9868

•9S28

•9293

•9259

•9225

80-4

772-1

•9602

•9466

•9480>

•9894

-9869

•9824

•9289

•9255

80*5

774-7

•9588

•9497

•9461

•9426

•9890

•9856

•9820

•9286

80-6

777-2

*9664

•9528

-9492

•9466

•9421

-9886

•9851

•9816

80-7

779-7

•9695

•9569

-9523

•9487

•9451

-9416

•9881

•9846

80*8

782-8

•9627

•9690

•9554

•9518

•9482

•9447

•9412

•9877

80-9

784-8

•9668

•9621

•9686

•9649

•9518

•9477

•9442

-9407

81-0

787-4

•9689

•9658

•9616

•9680

•9644

•9608

•9478

-9488

WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES 53

TABLB 21a.— VOLUMES OF WATBR AT DIFFBR-
ENT TEMPBRATURBS. (Rossetti.)

Temp.

Temp.

1

Tt»mp.

•c.

•c.

•c.

1

14

1*000666

40

1*007531

1

0*999947

15

1*000695

45

1*009541

2

0-999908

16

1*000846

50

1*011766

3

0*999885

17

1 *001010

55

1*014100

4

0-999877

18

1*001184

60

I -016590

5

0-999883

19

1*001370

65

1*019302

6

0-999903

20

1*001567

70

1*022246

7

0*999938

21

1*001776

75

1*026440

8

0*999986

22

1-001996

80

1*028581

9

1-000048

23

1*002226

85

1*081894

10

1-000124

24

1 -002466

90

1*035897

11

1*000213

25

1*002715

95

1*039094

12

1*000314

30

1-004064

100

1*042986

13

1*000429

35

1 -005697

'

TABLE 22.— REDUCTION OF WATER PRESSURB
TO MERCURIAL PRESSURB.

aq.

Hg.

aq.

Hg.

aq.

Hg.

aq.

Hg.

aq.

Hg.

1

0*07

23

1-70

45

3*32

67

4-94

89

6-57

2

0-15

24

1*77

46

3*39

68

5-02

90

6-64

3

0*22

25

1*84

47

3*47

69

5-09

91

6-72

4

0-30

26

1-92

48

3-54

70

5-17

92

6-79

5

0*37

27

1-98

49

3-62

71

5-24

93

6-86

6

0*44

28

2-07

60

3-69

72

6-31

94

6*94

7

0*62

29

2*14

61

3-76

73

5-39

95

7-01

8

0-59

30

2*21

52

3-84

74

5-46

96

7*08

9

0-66

31

2*29

63

3-91

75

6-64

97

7-16

10

0*74

32

2*36

64

3-99

76

6-61

98

7-23

11

0*81

33

2*44

65

4*06

77

5-68

99

7-81

12

0*89

84

2*51

56

4-13

78

6-76

100

7-88

13

0-96

35

2-58

67

4*21

79

5*83

200

14-76

14

1-03

36

2-66

58

4*28

80

5-90

300

22*14

15

1*12

37

2-78

59

4*35

81

5-98

400

29-62

16

1*18

38

2*80

60

4*43

82

6-05

600

36-90

17

1*26

39

2*88

61

4*50

83

6-13

600

44-28

18

1*33

40

2-95

62

4*58

84

6*20

700

51*66

19

1*40

41

3*03

63

4*65

85

6-27

800

69*04

20

1*38

42

8*10

64

4*72

86

6-35

900

66*42

21

1*65

43

3*17

65

4-80

87

6-42

1000

73*80

22

1-62

44

3*25

66

4-87

88

6-49

64 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 28.— TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR

Bet'ween - 20° and + 118° O. In MUllmetres Mercury.

(Maffnns.)

T.

mm.

T.

mm.

T.

mm.

-20"

0-916

+ 15°

12-677

+ 50°

92-0

19

0*999

16

13-519

61

96-6

18

1-089

17

14-409

52

101-5

17

1-186

18

16 -361

58

106-6

16

1-290

19

16-346

54

111-9

15

1-403

20

17-396

56

117-4

14

1-625

21

18-506

56

123-1

18

1-655

22

19-675

67

129-1

12

1-796

23

20-909

58

185-3

11

1-947

24

22-211

59

141-8

10

2-109

26

23-582

60

148-6

9

2-284

26

25-026

61

155-6

8

2-471

27

26-547

62

162-9

7

2-671

28

28-148

63

170-5

. 6

2-886

29

29-832

64

178-4

5

3-110

30

81-602

65

186-6

4

8-861

31

83-5

66

195-1

8

3-624

32

85-4

67

204-0

2

3-900

33

87-5

68

213-2

1

4-205

34

89-6

69

222-7

4-526

36

41-9

70

232-6

+ 1

4-867

36

44-3

71

242-9

2

5-231

37

46-8

72

253-5

8

5-619

38

49-4

73

264-6

4

6-032

89

52-1

74

276-0

6

6-471

40

56-0 ,

76

287-9

6

6-939

41

68-0

76

800-2

7

7-436

42

61-1

77

812-9

8

7-964

43

64-4

78

826-1

9

8-626

44

67-8

79

889*8

10

9-126

45

71-4

80

353-9

11

9-756

46

75-2

81

868-6

12

10-421

47

79-1

82

883-7

13

11-130

48

83-2

83

899-4

14

11-882

49

87-5

84

415-6

.

TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR

55

TABLE 23—C<mtimted.

T.

mm.

T.

mm.

T.

mm.

+ 85''

432*3

+ 97"'

681-7

+ 109°

1041-3

86

449-6

98

707-0

110

1077-3

87

467-5

99

788-1

111

1114-3

88

486-0

100

760-0

112

1152-3

89

505-0

101

787-7

113

1191-4

90

524-8

102

816-3

114

1231-7

91

545-1

103

846-7

115

1273-0

92

566-1

104

876-0

116

1315-5

93

587-8

106

907-1

117

1359-1

94

610-2

106

939-2

118

1403-9

95

633-3

107

972-8

96

657-1

108

1006-8 1

1

TABLB 24.— TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR FOR
TEMPERATURES FROM 40° O.

Temperature

Tension in mm.

Pressure

Pressure per sq.cm.

Centigrade.

in atmospheres.

in kilos.

+ 40"

64-906

0-072

0-07465

45

71 -391

0-094

0-09706

50

91-982

0-121

0-12505

55

117-478

0-154

0-15972

60

148-791

0-196

0-20323

65

186-945

0-246

0-25417

70

233-093 •

0-306

0-31692

76

288-517

0-380

0-39227

80

354-643

G-466

0-48217

85

433-041

0-570

0-58877

90

525-450

0-691

0-71440

96

633-778

0-834

0-86168

100

760-00

1-000

1-03330

105

906-41

1-193

1-23236

110

1075-87

1-416

1 -46210

115

1269-41

1-673

1-72592

120

1491-28

1-962

2-02755

126

1743-88

2-294

2-37098

130

2030-28

2-671

2-76037

135

2853 -73

3-097

3-20018

56 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE U—CofUinued.

Temperature
Oentlgrade.

Teiision in mm.

Pressure
in atmospheres.

Pressure per sq.cm.
in kilos.

+ 140°

2717^63

3-676

3*69490

145

3125-55

4-112

4-24960

150

3581 ^23

4-712

4*86904

155

4088-56

5-380

6*55881

160

4651 -62

6-120

6*32434

165

5274*54

6*940

7*17127

170

5961-66

7-844

8*10547

175

6717^43

8-838

9-13302

180

7646 ^89

9*929

10*2601

185

8453-23

11-122

11-4930

190

9442^70

12-424

12-8383

195

10519-73

18-841

14*3025

200

11688-96

15*380

16-8923

205

12956-66

17*047

17-6145

210

14824-80

18-848

19-4760

215

15801-33

20*791

21-4835

220

17890-00

22*881

23-6439

225

19097-04

26*127

25-9643

230

20926-40

27-534

28-4615

Temperature

Tension in inches

Pressure

Pressure in lbs. per

Fahrenheit.

of Mercury.

in atmospheres.

square inch.

100°

1-918

-064

•941

110

2-577

-086

1^267

120

8^427

-114

1^676

130

4^602

-150

2-205

140

6-868

-196

2-883

150

7-646

•262

8-705

160

9-628

•322

4-734

170

12-18

•407

5-984

180

15-27

'•510

7-498

190

19-01

•635

9-336

200

23*46

•784

11-53

212

29-92

1-000

14-706

220

35-01

1*170

17-19

280

42-84

1-415

20-80

240

60-89

1-701

26-01

TENSION OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR

57

TABLE 24^C(mt{nu€d.

Temperatare

Tension in inches

Pressure

Pressure in lbs. per

Fahrenheit.

of Mercury.

in atmospheres.

square inch.

260'*

60-81

2-032

29-87

260

72-27

2-416

86-50

270

85 ^41

2-855

41-97

280

100^4

3-356

49-34

290

117^6

3-927

57-78

800

136-8

4-572

67-22

310

158-6

6-301

77-94

320

183-1

6-120

89-98

330

210-5

7-035

103-4

340

241-1

8-058

118-6

350

275-0

9-198

136 ^2

360

812-6

10-45

168*6

370

354^0

11-83

173-9

380

399-6

13-36

196-3

390

449-6

16-02

220-8

400

504-4

16-86

247-9

410

563*9

18-84

277-0

420

628^8

21-01

809*9

430

699-2

23-37

848-6

440

776-3

26-91

380-9

TABLB 26.— TBNSION OF AQUBOUS VAPOUR IN
mOHBS OF MBROURTT FROM V TO 100° F.

Temperature

Inches of

Temperature

Inches of

Fahrenheit.

Mercury.

Fahrenheit.

Mercury.

V

-046

ir

-071

2

-048

12

•074

8

-050

13

•078

4

•062

14

-082

6

-064

16

•086

6

-057

16

•090

7

-060

17

-094

8

-062

18

•098

9

-065

19

-103

10

-068

20

•108

58 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 25—C<mttn'ued.

Tempenttuie

Inches of

Tempeiatnie

Inches of

Ffthronheit.

1

Mercury.

Fata^nheit.

Mercoiy.

2V

•118

er

•587

22

•118

62

•556

28

•128

68

•576

24

•129

64

•596

25

•185

65

•617

26

•141

66

•639

27

•147

67

•661

28

•153

68

•685

29

•160

69

•708

80

•167

70

•783

31

•174

71

•759

82

•181

72

•785

SB

•188

73

•812

84

•196

74

•840

85

•204

75

•868

i 36

•212

76

•897

! 87

•220

77

•927

38

•229

78

•958

89

•288

79

•990

40

•247

80

1^028

41

•257

81

1-057

42

•267

82

1-092

48

•277

88

1-128

44

•288

84

1-165

45

•299

85

1-203

46

•811

86

1-242

47

•323

87

1-282

48

•335

88

1-828

49

•348

89

1-866

50

•861

90

1-401

51

•874

91

1-455

52

•888

92

1^501

58

•403

93

1^548

54

•418

94

1-596

55

•438

95

1-646

56

•449

96

1-697

57

•465

97

1-751

58

•482

98

1-806

59

•500

99

1-862

60

•518

100

1-918

BOILING POINT OF WATER, ETC.

59

TABLB 26.— BOILING POINT OF WATBB AT
DIFFERENT BAROMETRIC PRESSURES.

Barometric

Boiling

Barometric

Boiling

Pressure.

Point.

Pressure.

Point.

mm.

mm.

. 710

98-11

745

99-44

716

98-30

760

99-63

720

98-49

755

99-82

725

98-69

760

100-00

730

98-88

765

100-18

735

99-07

770

100*37

740

99-26

775

100-55

TABLE 27.— SPECIFIC HEATS.

(a) Of Solids and Liqaids.

Aluminium

0-2220

Alcohol

0-547

Antimony .

0-0495

Ashes

0-20

Bismuth »

0-0308

Brass .

0-0917

Bricks

0-22

Cement

0-19

Carbon (wood)

0-1653

(graphite)
(diamond)

0-1604

0-1042

Copper

0-0986

Glass (for thermometers]

0-1988

Gypsum .

•

0-20

Granite

•

0-20

Gold .

•

•

0-0816

Iron (<!ast) .

0-1050

(wrought) .

0-1081

Lead . . . ,

0-0809

Limestone (marble)

0-21

Mercury ,

0-0334

Nickel

0-109

Oil (lubricating)

0-40

Platinum .

0-0324

Sandstone .

• 0-22

Slag .

0-18

Silver

0-0559

Steel .

0-1070

Sulphur

0-1764

Sulphuric acid . .

0*332

Tin . . .

0-0552

Zinc .

0-0985

(6) Of Oases and Vapours for Oonstant Pressures between the
Temperatures of 0*" and 200** O. (Langen and Regnault.)

Cal. per

Cal. per

Cal. per

Cal, per

■ -

1kg,

1 cb.m.

1kg.

1 cb.m.

Atmospheric air .

0-2389

0-3082

Carbon monoxide

0-2466

0-3082

Oxygen

0-2158

0-3082

Methane

0-5980

0-4241

Nitirogen

0-2459

0-3082

Ethylene . ,

0-4040

0-5058

Hydrogen ,

3-452

0-3082

Sulphur dioxide .

0-1544

0-4418

Carbon dioxide .

0-2092

0-4109

Aqueous vapour ,

0-4542

0-8654

60 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLB 28.— HEATING EFFBOTS.

(a) Definitions.

A metrical sram-calorie (caL)is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1* C The kiloffram-
calorie = 1000 caL

The normal calorie is that which raises 1 gram water of 14 -5° to
15-6*' C.

The British heat unit is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 pound of water from 32** to 33** Fahr., and
is = 252 gram-calories. This unit is required only where the absolute
values of the heat units are considered. Usually the question is only
of relative values — e.g,^ grams or lbs. of fHiel on the one hand, against
grams or lbs. of water on the other. For these comparisons the
simple proportion of British heat units to gTam-calories=5 : 9 is used,
as me unit of fHiel weight is the same as tnat of the water, and only
the degrees Centigrade and Fahrenheit differ as above. 1 British heat
unit is, therefore, = f = 0-5556 gram-calories.

1 Joule (j) = 10 million ergs = 0*2391 gram-calories.

1 Gram-calorie = 4*183 j.

IJ = 1000 j = 239*1 caL = lO^^ erg.

(6) Oalorlflc Value of Fuels.

(The data given are the upp^ heating values, «.«., they are referred
to the combustion of hydrogen to liquid water as found in the
calorimeter.)

Alcohol

Lignite-tar oil .
Wood

Methyl alcohol .
Charcoal (C to COg)
(C to CO)

met. cal.

met. cal.

. 7,100

Petroleum residue

. 10,500

. 10,000

Petroleum .

. 11,000

. 4,100

Fatty oils .

. 9,300

. 5,300

Tallow .

. 8,370

. 8,000

Bees' wax .

. 9,000

. 2,300

Cellulose .

. 4,200

(o) Oalorlflc Value of Oases.

■

t

i
1

2

16
28
78
128
28

Molec. Calories
when burnt to

Calories per cab.
met. when burnt to

Liquid
Water.

Steam.

Liquid
Water.

\

1

Steam.

Hydrogen, H^ •
Metliane, CH4 .
Ethylene, C2H4
Benzene vapour, CqIL.
Naphthalene vapour, CioHg
Carbon monoxide, CO

69-0

213-5

334-8

788-0

1258-4

68-4

58-1

192-1

313-4

755-9

1230-6

68-4

3064

9565

14,999

35,302

56,376

3064

1

2585

8606

14,060

33,864

55,131

3064

AIR COMPRESSION

61

TABLB 20.— AIR OOMPRBSSION.

The following table is compiled with a view to facilitate calculations
of problems connected with the application of compressed gases. The
table is strictly correct only for air, but is applicable also to other
gases, such as lime-kiln gases. The table relates to 1 cub. foot of
atmospheric air measured at 60"* F. and 29-92 inches barometric
pressure, and shows the volume, temperature, and pressure after
adiabatic compression ; also the height of a column of water which
the compressed gas will just balance, and the po.wer required to
compress the air in foot-pounds (33,000 ft. -lbs. per minute = 1 indicated
horse-power), and the mean pressure on the air piston.

Pinal Pressure
lbs. per sq. in.

above
Atmosphere.

1

Column of

Water the

Gas will

balance.

Volume of

compressed

Air.

Temperature

after
Compression.

Mean

Pressure on

Piston.

Foot-pounds

of

Work per

cub. foot

atmosph. air.

Lbs.

Feet.

Cub. feet.

Degrees F.

Lbs.persq.in.

10

23-12

0-692

144-5

8-28

1186-3

12

27-75

0-655

158-1

9-58

1387

14

82-37

0-622

171-0

10-86

1564

16

37-00

0-598

184-0

12-08

1789

18

41*62

0-567

196-0

18*23

1907

20

46-25

0-544

207-3

14-85

2066

22

50-87

0-523

218-3

15-42

2220

24

55-50

0-504

228*6

16-45

2368

26

60-12

0*486

239-0

17-43

2510

28

64*75

0*469

249-0

18-39

2647

30

69-87

0-454

258-2

19-32

2782

32

74-00

0-440

267-5

20-21

2910

34

78-62

0-428

276-4

21-07

3084

36

83-25

0-416

285-3

21-92

3156

38

87-87

0*404

293-5

22-74

8275

40

92-50

0*394

301-8

23-53

3389

In Metrical Units.

Pinal Pressure

above

1 atm. per

sq.cm.

Column of

Water the

Gas will

balance.

Volume of

1 cub.m. air

after Com-

presston.

Temperature

after
Compression.

Mean

Pressure on

Piston.

Work j>er

1 cub.m. in

metre-kg.

Kg.
0-708
0-844
0*984
1-125
1-266

m.

7-05

8-44

9-87

11-28

12-69

cub.m.
0-692
0-655
0-622
0-598
0-567

62-6
70-1
77-2
84-4
91-1

Kg.persq.cm.
0-579
0-674
0-764
0-849
0*930

5,789
6,769
7,638
8,488
9,307

62 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 2Q^C<mtinued.

Final Pressure

above

1 atm. per

sq.cm.

Column of

Water the

Gas will

balance.

Volume of
1 cab.m. air
after Com-
pression.

Temperature

after
Compression.

Mean

Pressure on

Piston.

Work per

1 cab.m. in

metre-kg.

Kg.

*

m.

cub.m.

•c.

Kg. per sq.cm.

1-406

14-10

0*544

97-4

1-009

9,791

1'647

16-50

0-523

108-5

1-084

10,835

1-687

16-91

0-604

109-2

1*157

11,567

1-828

18-32

0-486

115-9

1*226

12,251

1*969

19-74

0-469

120-6

1*298

12,919

2*109

21-14

0-464

125-7

1*358

18,673

2*250

22*55

0*440

180*8

1*421

14,203

2-391

23-96

0-428

135-8

1-481

14,808

2-581

25-87

0-416

140-7

1*541

15,403

2-874

26*78

0-404

145-4

1*599

15,984

2-812

28-19

0-394

149*9

1-654

16,541

TABLB 30.— BXPIjOSIVB MIXTXJRBS OF GASES

AND AIR. (Bitner.)

Acetylene .
Hydrogen •
Carbon monoxide
Ethylene .
Metnane
Coal-gas

Bensene vapour .
Petroleum spirit vapour
Ether ....

klnmes of Gas.

YolomesofAir.

8-5-52*2

96-5-47-8

9-5-66-8

90-5-38-7

16-6-77*8

88-4-25*2

4*2-14*5

95*8-85*5

6*2-12*7

93*8-«7*3

8*0-19

92*0-81

2*7- 6*8

97-3-93*7

2-5- 4*8

97*5-95*2

2-9- 7-5

97-1-92-5

PROPERTIES OF THE LIQUEFIED GASES 63

o

o
o

b
o
o

o

n

o

H

GQ

^ u

H «

n
o

M

09

Conditions of transit

on
Qerman Railways.

ni poimbei
'i9&% oqqi JO noi!(|((dd9S

•
5

-^ •**( N d "'Jt W

JO oinesajd v %v
siasseA 9X1% jo %b&% vb\ojso

•

s
23

O O N w o o

00 O rH CI CO OO

rH rH

•oom^sqns '9n i

lOJ 90Vd8 p9qiI069JJ

•

1-^

1-34

1-34

0-8

0-8

0-8

0-8

•(^II|0d 8U1!J19J|[

•

O

o

O kO 0) C<l urd

rH CO t^ O t*

7 • ' 7 ' '•

'OinssdJd

•

-87-9
-78-2
-10-0
-33-6
-33-7

• ■ •

'aonssajd x«oi:^uo

•

a

O) lA

• •

O t« 00 CO lA
!>.£>. t^ O) rH

-din«)«jodaie^ X*oi<(l^O

36

81-3
155-4
146
130

...

JO emniOA evS

1

506
506
348
316
1313

Vapour tension
(atm.) at

•

O 00 U3 t^ Tf

• • • • • •

00 00 "^l 00 1*4
CO t^ rH

•

•

I-l

00 (N 1^ 00 rH

• • • • • •

oi (N (N io t^ :

•

rH ^ iO !>. (N
• • • • • •

CO »r5 rH CO "*
CO 00 *"

Specific gravity
at

1

• • •

0-732
1-349
1-380
0-592

• • •

•

r-t

0-870
0-864
1-396
1-426
0-614

• ■ •

•
e
O

0-937
0-947
1-435
1-468
0-634

• • •

•

Nitrous oxide
Carbon dioxide
Sulphur dioxide
Chlorine * .
Ammonia
Phosgen

J8

3

p*

00

9

.a

o

OQ

s

o

d

S

n

ua

o

OB

-a

s

t
a

8

I

64 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE! 32.— BLBOTRIOAL UNITS.

1. The unit of quantity, the oouloiub, is that quantity of current
which precipitates 1*118 mg. silver from a solution of silver nitrate.

2. The unit of current, the ampere, is that current which conveys
1 coulomb through the circuit in 1 second.

1 ampere-hour is = the quantity of current which gives per hour

1 ampere, or per n hours, — amperes = 3600 coulombs.

n

3. The unit of resistance, the ohm, is equal to the resistance of a
column of mercury at 0° C. of a sectional area of 1 x 1 mm., 106-3 cm,
long, possessing a mass of 14*4251 grams. Other units in use are the
Siemens Unit =0-944 ohms, and the British Association Unit(B.A.U.)
= 0-989 ohms.

4. The unit of electromotive force, the volt, is the force which in
a conductor with a resistance of 1 ohm gives a current = 1 ampere.

Electromotive force of a Daniell cell = 1*12 volts.

Bunsen cell^= 2 volts.
Clark cell = 1*4328 volts.
Weston cell = 0*0186 volt,
lead storage cell = 2-1-1-9 volts.

5. The farad is the capacity of a condenser in which a charge of I
coulomb produces a difference of potential of 1 volt.

6. A watt or volt-ampere is the amount of work produced during
1 second by a current of 1 ampere under an electromotive force of 1

volt. It is = Q^^r — — — per second = 0^102 m.kg. ; hence 1

horse-power =735 -6 watts. The British Board of Trade Unit is =1000
watt hours.

A current of 1 ampere, at a resistance of w ohms, produces during
t seconds a quantity of heat = 0*239 wt gram-calories. 1 cal. = 4*19
joules.

»t

t»

»«

*«

TABLE 33.— ELEOTRO-OHEMIOAL EQUIVALENTS.

The separation of a gram equivalent requires 96,540 coulombs
= 26-86 ampere hours. 1 ampere hour is capable of yielding : —

At the Cathode.

Grams.

At the Anode.

Grams.

SUver

Copper (from solutions of
cupric salts) .

Zinc

Nickel ....
Hydrogen ....

4-0248

1-186
1-219
1-094
0-0875

Chlorine .
Bromine .
Iodine .
Oxygen .
Potassium chlorate
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide .

1-322

2-982

4-730

0-298S

0-7618

2-094

1-494

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

66

'TABLE 84.— MATHBMATIOAIi TABLBS.

Circumference and area of circles, squares, cubes, square and cul>e roots.

n

m

O

n2

•

n^

n»

• Vn

i/n

VO

3-142

0-7864

1-000

1-000

1-0000

1-0000

1-1

8*456

0-9603

1-210

1-331

1-0488

1*0828

1-2

3-770

1-1310

1-440

1-728

1-0956

1-0627

1-3

4-084

1-3273

1-690

2-197

1-1402

1-0914

1-4

4-398

1-5394

1-960

2-744

1-1832

1-1187

1-5

4-712

1-7672

2-250

3-375

1-2247

1-1447

1-6

5-027

2-0106

2-560

4-096

1-2649

1-1696

1-7

5-341

2-2698

2-890

4-918

1-3038

1-1985

1-8

6-655

2-5447

8-240

6-832

1-3416

1*2164

1-9

6-969

2-8363

3-610

6*859

1-3784

1 -2386

2-0

6*283

3-1416

4-000

8-000

1-4142

1-2599

2-1

6-597

3-4636

4-410

9-261

1-4491

1-2806

2-2

6-912

3-8013

4-840

10-648

1-4832

1-8006

2-3

7-226

4-1548

5-290

12-167

1-5166

1-8200

2-4

7-640

4-5239

5-760

13*824

1-5492

1-8889

2-5

7-854

4-9087

6-250

15-625

1-5811

1-3572

2-6

8-168

5-3093

6-760

17-576

1-6125

1-8761

2-7

8-482

5-7256

7-290

19-683

1-6432

1-3925

2-8

8-797

6-1576

7-840

21-962

1-6733

1-4095

2-9

9-111

6-6062

8-410

24-889

1-7029

1-4260

30

9-425

7-0686

9-00

27-000

1-7321

1-4422

31

9-789

7-6477

9-61

29-791

1-7607

1-4581

3-2

10-053

8-0426

10-24

32-768

1-7889

1-4736

3-3

10-367

8-5530

10-89

35-987

1-8166

1-4888

3-4

10-681

9-0792

11-56

39-304

1-8439

1*5037

3-5

10-996

9-6211

12-25

42-875

1-8708

1-5183

3-6

11-310

10-179

12-96

46-656

1 -8974

1-5326

3-7

11-624

10-752

13-69

60-653

1*9235

1-5467

3-8

11-938

11-341

14-44

64-872

1-9494

1-5605

3-9

12-252

11-946

15-21

69*319

1*9748

1*5741

4-0

12-566

12-566

16-00

64-000

2-0000

1-5874

4-1

12-881

13-203

16-81

68-921

2-0249

1-6005

4-2

13-195

13-864

17-64

74-088

2-0494

1-6184

4-3

13-509

14-622

18-49

79*507

2-0786

1-6261

4-4

18-623

15-206

19-36

85*184

2-0976

1-6886

4-5

14-137

15-904

20-25

91-125

2-1213

1-6510

4-6

14-461

16-619

21-16

97-386

2*1448

1-6681

4-7

14-765

17-349

22-09

103-828

2-1680

1-6751

E

66 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' flANDBOOK

TABLE 34— Conetntietf.

n

im

o •

4

•

n^

n^

n/»

^/•r

4-8

16-080

18-096

23*04

110-592

2-1909

1-6869

4-9

15-894

18-857

24-01

117-649

2-2136

1-6986

6-0

15-708

19-635

25-00

125-000

2-2361

1-7100

6-1

16-022

20-428

26-01

182*651

2-2583

1-7218

6-2

16-886

21-237

27-04

140*608

2-2804

1-7325

6-8

16-660

22-062

28-09

148-877

2-3022

1-7435

6-4

16-965

22-902

29-16

157-464

2-3288

1-7544

5-6

17-279

23-758

30-25

166-375

2-8452

1-7652

6-6

17-598

24-630

31-36

175-616

2-3664

1-7758

5-7

17-907

25-618

32-49

186-193

2-3875

1-7863

6-8

18-221

26-421

33-64

195-112

2-4088

1-7967

6-9

18-585

27-340

84-81

206-379

2-4290

1-8070

6-0

18-850

28-274

86-00

216-000

2-4495

1-8171

6-1

19-164

29-225

37-21

226-981

2-4698

1-8272

6-2

19-478

30-191

38-44

238-828

2-4900

1-8371

6-3

19-792

31-173

39-69

250-047

2-5100

1-8469

6-4

20-106

32-170

40-96

262-144

2-5298

1-8566

6-6

20-420

33-188

42-25

274-625

2-5495

1-8663

6-6

20-785

34-212

43-56

287-496

2-5691

1-8768

6-7

21-049

35-257

44-89

300-763

2-5884

1-8862

6-8

21-863

36-817

46-24

314-482

2-6077

1-8946

6-9

21-677

37-393

47-61

328-509

2-6268

1-9088

7-0

21-991

38-485

49-00

343-000

2-6458

1-9129

7-1

22-805

39-592

50-41

357-911

2-6646

1*9920

7-2

22-619

40-715

51-84

373-248

2-6833

1-9810

7-3

22-934

41-854

53-29

389-017

2-7019

1-9899

7-4

23*248

43-008

54-76

405-224

2-7203

1-9487

7-6

23-562

44-179

56-25

421-875

2-7386

1-9574

7-6

23-876

45-365

47-76

438-976

2-7568

1-9661

7-7

24-190

46-566

69-29

456-533

2-7749

1-9747

7-8

24-504

47-784

60-84

474-552

2-7929

1-9832

7-9

24-819

49-017

62-41

493*039

2-8107

1-9916

8-0

25-183

50-266

64-00

512-000

2-8284

2-0000

8:1

25-447

51-530

65-61

531-441

2-8461

2-0083

8-2

25-761

52-810

67-24

551-368

2-8636

2-0165

8-3

26-075

54-106

68-89

571-787

2*8810

2-0247

8-4

26-389

55-418

70-56

592-704

2-8983-

2-0328

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

67

TABLE M—C&ntmued.

n

vn

O

<

•

n^

n8

sin

^

8-5

26-704

56*745

72-25

614*125

2*9165

2*0408

8-6

27-018

58*088

73-96

636-056

2*9826

2*0488

8-7

27-332

59-447

75-69

658*503

2*9496

2*0567

8-8

27-646

60*821

77*44

681-472

2*9665

2*0646

8-9

27-960

62*211

79*21

704-969

2*9833

2*0724

9-0

28-274

63*617

81*00

729-000

3-0000

2-0801

9-1

28-588

65-089

82*81

763-571

3-0166

2-0878

9-2

28-903

66-476

84*64

778-688

3*0832

2-0954

9-3

29-217

67-929

86-49

804-857

3*0496

2*1029

9-4

29-531

69-398

88-36

830*584

3-0659

2*1106

9-5

29-845

70-882

90-25

867*375

3*0822

2*1179

9-6

80-159

72-882

92-16

884*736

3*0984

2*1258

9-7

30-478

78*898

94-09

912*673

3-1145

2*1327

9-8

30-788

75-480

96*04

941*192

3*1305

2*1400

9-9

1

31*102

76-977

98*01

970*299

3*1464

2*1472

1

10-0

31-416

78*540

100-00

1000*000

3-1623

2*1544

10-1

31-780

80-119

102*01

1030*301

3*1780

2*1616

10-2

82-044

81-713

104*04

1061*208

3*1937

2*1687

10-8

82-358

83-323

106*09

1092*727

3*2094

2*1757

10-4

32-673

84-949

108*16

1124*864

3*2249

2*1828

10-5

32-987

86-590

110*25

1157*626

3-2404

2*1897

10-6

33-301

88-247

112*86

1191*016

3-2668

2*1967

10-7

33-615

89-920

114-49

1225*043

3*2711

2*2036

10-8

33*929

91-609

116-64

1259*712

3*2863

2-2104

10-9

34-243

93*313

118*81

1295*029

3*3016

2*2172

11-0

34-558

95-033

121*00

1331-000

3*3166

2*2239

11-1

34-872

96-769

123*21

1367*631

3*3817

2*2307

11-2

35-186

98*520

125*44

1404-928

3*3466

2*2374

11-3

35*500

100*29

127*69

1442*897

3*3616

2*2441

11-4

35*814

102*07

129*96

1481*644

3*3754

2-2506

11-6

36-128

103*87

132*25

1520*875

3*3912

2*2672

11-6

36*442

105*68

134*56

1560*896

3*4069

2*2637

11 "7

36-757

107*51

136*89

1601*618

3-4206

2*2702

1 11-8

37-071

109*36

139*24

1643*032

3*4361

2*2766

11-9

37*385

111*22

141*61

1685*159

3*4496

2*2831

1 12'0

37*699

113-10

144*00

1728*000

3*4641

2*2894

12-1

88-018

114-99

146*41

1771*561

3*4786

2*2967

12-2

38*327

116-90

148*84

1816*848

3*4928

2*3021

68 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 34— CoNf»m(«(2.

I»

rn

O

4
•

n^

»'

Vn

ys

12-3

88-642

118-82

161*29

1860-867

3-5071

2*8084

12-4

88*966

120*76

168*76

1906-624

8*5214

2*8146

12-5

39-270

122*72

156-25

1958*125

8*5355

2*8208

12-6

39-584

124*69

158*76

2000*876

3*5496

2*8270

12-7

39*898

126-68

161*29

2048-388

8*5637

2*3331

12-8

40-212

128-68

168*84

2097-152

3-5777

2-8892

12-9

40*527

180*70

166*41

2146-689

8-6917

2-8453

13-0

40*841

132*78

169*00

2197-000

3-6056

2-8513

18-1

41*155

134*78

171*61

2248-091

3-6194

2*3573

13-2

41*469

186*85

174*24

2299*968

3-6882

2-8633

18-8

41 -783

188-98

176*89

2852-687

8*6469

2-8693

18-4

42*097

141-08

179*56

2406*104

8-6606

2-3752

18-5

42*412

148-14

182*25

2460-876

3-6742

2-3811

18-6

42*726

145*27

184-96

2516-466

3-6878

2-8870

13-7

43*040

147*41

187*69

2571-853

3*7013

2-3928

13 -8

48*354

149*57

190-44

2628-072

3-7148

2-3986

18-9

43-668

151*75

193*21

2685-619

3*7288

2-4044

14-0

43*892

153*94

196-00

2744-000

3*7417

2*4101

14-1

44*296

156*15

198*81

2803-221

8*7550

2*4159

14-2

44*611

158*87

201*64

2868*288

3*7683

2*4216

14-3

44*925

160*61

204*49

2924*207

8*7815

2*4272

14-4

45*239

162-86

207*86

2985*984

3*7947

2*4329

14-5

45-553

165*13

210-25

8048*625

3*8079

2*4385

14-6

45*867

167*42

213-16

8112*186

3*8210

2*4441

14-7

46*181

169*72

216*09

8176*623

8*8841

2*4497

14-8

46*496

172*08

21904

8241-792

3*8471

2*4552

14-9

46*810

174*37

222*01

8807*949

3*8600

2*4607

15-0

47124

176*72

225-00

3376-000

3-8730

2*4662

15-1

47*438

179-08

228-09

3442-951

3-8859

2*4717

15-2

47-752

181-46

231-04

8511*808

3-8987

2-4772

15-3

48-066

188-85

234*09

8581*577

3*9115

2-4825

15-4

48*381

186*27

237*16

8652-264

3*9243

2*4879

15-5

48*695

188-69

240*25

3728*875

3-9370

2*4983

15-6

49*009

191*13

248*36

8796-416

3*9497

2*4986

15-7

49*323

198*59

246*49

3869*893

8-9623

2-6039

15-8

49*637

196*07

249*64

3944*812

3-9749

2*6092

15-9

49-951

1

198-56

252-81

4019-679

3*9875

2*5146

1

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

69

TABLE M— Continued.

n

vn

O

4

•

•

»2

n»

Vn

if-

16-0

50-265

201*06

256-00

4096-000

4-0000

2-5198

16-1

60-680

203*58

259*21

4178-281

4-0125

2-5261

16-2

50*894

206-13

262*44

4251-528

4-0249

2-5303

' 16-3

51-208

208-67

265*69

4330-747

4 0378

2-5355

16-4

61-622

211-24

268-66

4410-944

4-0497

2-5406

16-5

61-836

213*83

272-26

4492*125

4-0620

2-6458

16-6

52-150

216*42

275-66

4574-296

4-0743

2-6509

16-7

52-465

219-04

278-89

4657-463

4-0866

2-5561

16-8

52-779

221 -67

282-24

4741-682

4-0988

2-5612

16-9

53-093

224-32

285-61

4826*809

4-UlO

2-5663

17-0

53-407

226*98

299-00

4913-000

4-1231

2-5713

17-1

53-721

229-66

292-41

6000-211

4-1352

2-5763

17-2

54-035

232-35

296-84

6088-448

4-1473

2-5813

17-8

54-350

235-06

299-29

5177-717

41693

2-6863

17-4

54-664

237*79

302-76

5268-024

4-1713

2-5913

17-6

54-978

240-63

306-25

5369-375

4-1833

2-5963

17-6

55-292

243*29

309-76

5461-776

4-1962

2-6012

17-7

55-606

*246-06

313-29

5546-233

4-2071

2-6061

17-8

55-920

248-85

316-84

5639-762

4-2190

2-6109

17-9

56-235

251-65

320-41

5736-339

4-2308

2-6158

18-0

66-549

254-47

324*00

5832*000

4-2426

2-6207

18-1

56-863

267-30

327-61

5929*741

4-2544

2-6256

18-2

57-177

260-16

331-24

6028*668

4-2661

2-6304

18-3

57-491

263-02

334-89

6128*487

4-2778

2-6352

18-4

57-805

266*90

338-56

6229-504

4*2895

2-6400

18-5

58-119

268-80

342*26

6331-625

4-3012

2-6448

18-6

58-434

271*72

345*96

6434-856

4-3128

2-6495

18-7

58-748

274*65

349*69

6539-203

4-3243

2-6543

18-8

59-062

277*59

863*44

6644-672

4-3459

2-6590

18-9

59-376

280*65

357-21

6751-269

4-3474

2-6637

19-0

59*690

283*68

361-00

6859-000

4-3589

2-6684

19-1

60-004

286*52

364-81

6967-871

4-3703

2-6731

19-2

60-319

289*53

368-64

7077-888

4-3818

2-6777

19-3

60-633

292*55

372-49

7189-057

4-3942

2-6824

19-4

60-947

295-59

376-86

7301-384

4-4046

2*6869

19-6

61-261

298*65

380-25

7414-876

4-4159

2-6916

19-6

61 -575

801-72

284-16

7629-536

4-4272

2-6962

19-7

61*889

804-81

388-09

7642-373

4-4385

2-7008

70 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE U—C(nUmfi£d,

ft

Tn

O

4

•

n^

n«

sJn

:/»

19*8

62*204

307*91

392*04

7762*392

4*4497

2-7063

19-9

62*618

811*03

396-01

7880*699

4-4609

2-7098

20*0

62-882

314*16

400*00

8000*000

4-4721

2-7144

201

68*146

317-31

404-01

8120*601

4-4833

2-7189

20*2

63-460

320*47

408*04

8242*408

4-4944

2-7234

20*8

68*774

323*66

412*09

8366*427

4*6066

2-7279

20-4

64*088

826-86

416*16

8489-664

4-5166

2-7824 ,

20-5

64*403

880*06

420-25

8616*125

4-5277

2-7368

20*6

64-717

333*29

424*36

8741*816

4-5887

2-7413

20-7

66-031

886-64

428-49

8869*743

4-5497

2-7457 i

20-8

66-846

339*80

432*64

8998*912

4-5607

2-7602 '

20*9

66*659

848*07

436-81

9129*329

4-5716

2-7545

21*0

65*978

846*86

441*00

9261-000

4*6826

2-7589

21*1

66*288

349*67

446-21

9393-931

4-5985

2-7633

21*2

66*602

352-99

449*44

9528*128

4-6043

2-7676

21*3

66*916

366-38

458-69

9663*597

4-6162

2*7720

21-4

67-230

869*68

467*96

9800*344

4-6260

2-7763

21-5

67*644

363*06

462*26

9938-375

4-6368

2-7806 '

21-6

67*868

866-44

466*56

10077-696

4-6476

2-7849

21*7

68*173

369-84

470*89

10218-313

4-6583

2-7893

21*8

68*487

873-26

475*24

10360*232

4-6690

2-7935

21-9

68*801

376*69

479*41

10503*459

4-6797

2-7978

22-0

69*116

880*13

484-00

10648*000

4-6904

2-8021

22*1

69*429

388*60

488*41

10798*861

4-7011

2-8063

22*2

69*743

387*08

462*84

10941*048

4-7117

2-8105

22-8

70*068

890*67

497*29

11089*667

4-7223

2-8147

22*4

70*372

394*08

601-76

11239-424

4-7329

2-8189

22-5

70*686

897*61

606*25

11890-625

4-7434

2-8281

22*6

71*000

401*15

610-76

11543-176

4-7539

2-8273

22-7

71*314

404-71

615*29

14697-083

4*7644

2-8314

22-8

71*628

408*28

519*84

11852*362

4*7749

2-8366

22-9

71*942

411-87

624*41

12008*989

4-7864

2-8397

23-0

72*267

416*48

529*00

12167*000

4*7958

2-8438

23-1

72*571

419-10

533*61

12326*391

4-8062

2-8479

23-2

72-885

422*78

638*24

12487*168

4-8166

2-8621

23-3

73*199

426*39

542*89

12649*837

4-8270

2-8662

23-4

73*518

430*06

547-56

12812-904

4-8373

2-8603

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

71

TABLE M—CofUinved.

n

xn

O

•

na

ns

\/n

V-

28-5

78-827

433-74

562-25

12977-875

4*8477

2-8643

28-6

74-142

437-44

656-96

13144-256

4-8580

2-8684

28-7

74-466

441-15

561-69

13812-053

4-8683

2-8724

28-8

74-770

444-88

566-44

18481-272

4-8785

2-8765

23-9

75-084

448-68

571-21

13651-919

4-8888

2-8805

24-0

76-398

452-39

576-00

13824-000

4-8990

2-8845

24-1

75-712

466-17

580-81

18997-621

4-9092

2-8886

24-2

76-027

459-96

586-64

14172-488

4-9192

2-8925

24-3

76-341

463-77

590-49

14348-907

4-9295

2-8965

24-4

76-655

467-60

595-86

14526-784

4-9396

2-9004

24-5

76-969

471-44

600-25

14706-125

4-9497

2*9044

24-6

77-283

475-29

605-16

14886-936

4-9598

2-9083

24-7

77-697

479-16

610-09

16069-223

4-9699

2-9123

24-8

77-911

483-05

615-04

16262-992

4-9799

2-9162

24-9

78-226

486-96

620-01

15488-249

4-9899

2-9201

25-0

78-540

490-87

625-00

15625-000

6-0000

2-9241

26-1

78-864

494-81

630-01

15813-251

5-0099

2-9279

25-2

79-168

498-76

636-04

16003-008

5-0199

2-9318

26-8

79-482

502-73

640*09

16194-277

5-0299

2-9356

25-4

79-796

506-71

646-16

16887-064

6-0398

.2-9895

25-5

80-111

610-71

650-25

16581-376

5-0497

2-9484

26-6

80-425

514-72

655-36

16777-216

5-0596

2-9472

26-7

80-739

518-75

660-49

16974-693

5-0696

2-9510

26-8

81-053

522-79

665-64

17173-512

6-0793

2-9549

25-9

81-367

526-85

670-81

17378-979

5-0892

2-9586

26-0

81-681

580-93

676-00

17576-000

5-0990

2-9624

26-1

81-996

636 -02

681-21

17779-681

5-1088

2-9662

26-2

82-310

639-13

686-44

17984-728

6-1186

2-9701

26-3

82-624

543-25

691-69

18191-447

5-1283

2-9788

26-4

82-938

647-39

696-96

18399-744

5-1380

2-9776

26-5

83-252

561-56

702-25

18609-626

6-1478

2-9814

26-6

83-666

555-72

707-56

18821-096

5-1576

2-9861

26-7

83-881

669-90

712-89

19034-168

5-1672

2-9888

26-8

84-195

564-10

718-24

19248-832

5-1768

2-9926

26-9

84-509

668-32

723-61

19465-109

5-1865

2-9968

27-0

84-823

572-66

729-00

19683-000

5-1962

8-0000

27*1

85-137

576-80

734-41

19902-511

6-2067

8-0037

27-2

85-461

581-07

739-84

20123-648

5-2163

3-0074

72 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE M— Continued.

n

m

O

n2

T

4

•

ns

n»

N^n

8/ —

27 '8

85-765

586*35

745-29

20846-417

5-2249

8-0111

27-4

86-080

589-65

760*76

20670-824

5-2346

8-0147

27-6

86-894

593-96

766*25

20796-875

6-2440

8-0184

27-6

86-708

598-29

761-76

21024*576

6-2585

8-0221

27-7

87-022

602*63

767-29

21253*983

6-2630

8-0257

27-8

87-336

606*99

772-84

21484*952

6-2726

8-0293

27-9

87-650

611-36

778*41

21717*639

5-2820

8-0880

28-0

87-965

615-75

784*00

21952*000

5-2916

3-0866

28-1

88-279

620-16

789*61

22188-041

6-8009

8-0402

28-2

88*593

624-58

795-24

22426*768

6 -8103

8-0438

28-8

88*907

629*02

800*89

22666*187

5-8197

3-0474

28-4

89-221

633-47

806-56

22906*304

5-3291

3-0510

28*5

89*535

637*94

812*25

23149-125

5-3885

3-0546

28-6

89*860

642*42

817-96

23393*656

5-3478

3-0581

28-7

90*164

646*93

823-69

23639-903

5-3572

8*0617

28-8

90*478

661-44

829*44

23887*872

6*3665

8*0652

28*9

90*792

655*97

836*21

24137*669

6*3768

3*0688

29*0

91*106

660*52

841-00

24389-000

5-3852

3 0723

29*1

'91*420

665*08

846*81

24642*171

6*3944

3-0758

29-2

91*735

669*66

862*64

24897*088

6*4037

3*0794

29-8

92-049

674-26

858-49

25163-767

5*4129

3*0829

29*4

92-368

678*87

864-36

25412*184

6-4221

8*0864

29*5

92*677

688*49

870-25

26672 •375

5-4313

8*0899

29*6

92*991

688*13

876*16

26934*336

6-4406

3*0934

29*7

93*305

692-79

882*09

26198*073

6-4497

3*0968

29*8

93-619

697*47

888*04

26463*592

6-4589

3-1008

29*9

93*934

702*15

894*01

26730*899

5*4680

8-1038

80*0

94-248

706*86

900*00

27000*000

5*4772

3-1072

30*1

94-562

711*58

906*01

27270-901

6*4863

3*1107

80*2

94*876

716*82

912-04

27543*608

5*4964

3*1141

30*3

95-190

721*07

918-09

27818*127

6*5045

8-1178

30*4

95*504

725*83

924*16

28094-464

5*5186

3-1210

30*5

95-819

730*62

930^25

28372^626

5-5226

3-1244

30*6

96*133

735*42

936-36

28662*616

6*5317

3-1278

30*7

96-447

740*23

942*49

28934*443

5*6407

8-1812

30*8

96*761

745*06

948*64

29218*112

5*5497

3*1846

80*9

97*075

749*91

954*81

29603-629

5*5587

8-1880

1

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

73

TABLE S^—C(mtinv€d,

n2

irn

w —

n
31-0

O

4

•

97-389

754-77

31-1

97-704

759-65

31-2

98-018

764-54

31-3

98-332

769-45

31-4

98-646

774-37

31-5

98-960

779-31

31-6

99-274

784-27

31-7

99-588

789-24

31-8

99-903

794-23

31-9

100-22

799-23

32-0

100-53

804-25

32-1

100-85

809-28

32-2

101-16

814-33

32-3

101-47

819-40

32-4

101-79

824-49

82-5

102-10

829-58

32-6

102-42

834-69

32-7

102-73

839-82

82-8

103-04

844-96

32-9

103-36

850-12

83-0

103-67

855-30

33-1

103-99

860-49

33-2

104-30

865-70

33-3

104-62

870-92

33-4

104-93

876-19

33-5

105-24

881-41

33-6

105-56

886-68

33-7

105-87

891-97

33-8

106-19

897-27

33-9

106-50

902-59

34-0

106-81

907-92

34-1

107-13

913-27

34-2

107-44

918-63

34-3

107-76

924-01

34-4

108-07

929-41

34-5

108-38

934-82

34-6

108-70

940-25

84-7

109-01

945-69

w^

961 -00
967-21
973-44
979-69
985-96

992-25

998-56

1004-89

1011-24

1017-61

1024-00
1030-41
1036-84
1043-29
1049-76

1056-25
1062-76
1069-29
1075-84
1082-41

1089-00
1095-61
1102-24
1108-89
1115-56

1122-25
1128-96
1135-69
1142-44
1149-21

1156-00
1162-81
1169-64
1176-49
1183-36

1190-25
1197-16
1204-09

n^

29791 -000
30080-231
30371 -828
30664-297
30959-144

31255-875
31554-496
31855-013
32157-432
32461-759

^2768-000
33076-161
33386-248
33698-267
34012-224

34328-125
34645-976
34965-783
35287-552
35611-289

35937-000
36264-691
36594-368
36925-037
37259-704

37595-375
37933-056
38272-753

38614-472
38958-219

39304-000
39651-821
40001-688
40353-607
40707-584

41063-525
41421-736
41781-923

fs/n

V»

5-5678

3-1414

5-5767

8-1448

5-5857

3-1481

5-5946

3-1515

5-6035

3-1549

5-6124

3-1582

5-6213

3-1615

5-6302

3-1648

5-6391

3-1681

5-6480

3-1715

5-6569

8-1748

5-6656

3-1781

5-6745

3-1814

5-6833

3-1847

5-6921

3-1880

5-7008

3-1913

5-7056

3-1945

5-7183

3-1978

5-7271

3-2010

5-7858

3-2043

5-7447

3-2076

5-7532

3-2108

5-7619

3-2140

6-7706

3-2172

5-7792

3-2204

5-7879

3-2237

5-7965

3-2269

5-8051

3-2301

5-8137

3-2882

5-8223

3-2364

5-8310

3-2396

5-8395

3-2424

5-8480

3-2460

5-8566

3-2491

5-8751

3-2522

5-8736

3-2564

5-8821

8-2586

5-8906

3-2617

74 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE ^4r-'CofU%mied.

n

xn

O

x~^

4

•

»^

n8

Vn

>

34-8

109-38

951-15

1211-04

42144-192

5-8991

3-2648

34-9

109-64

956-62

1218-01

42508-549

5-9076

3-2679

36-0

109-96

962-11

1225-00

42875-000

5-9161

8-2710

35-1

110-27

967-62

1232-01

43243-551

5-9245

3-2742

35-2

110-68

973-14

1239-04

43614-208

5-9826

3-2773

35-3

110-90

978-68

1246-09

43986-977

5*9418

3-2804

35-4

111-21

984-23

1253-16

44361-864

5-9497

3-2835 1

35-5

111-53

989-80

1260-25

44738-875

5-9681

3-2866

35-6

111-84

995-38

1267-36

451 18 -016-

5-9665

3-2897

35-7

112-15

1000-98

1274-49

45499-293

5-9749

3-2927

35-8

112-47

1006-60

1281-64

45882-712

5*9838

3-2968

35-9

112-78

1012-23

1288-81

46268-279

5-9916

8*2989

36-0

113-10

1017-88

1296-00

46656-000

6-0000

3-3019

36-1

113-41

1028-54

1308-21

47045-881

6-0088

8-8050

36-2

113-73

1029-22

1310-44

47487-928

6-0166

3-3080

36-3

114-04

1034-91

1317-69

47832-147

6-0249

3-8111

36-4

114-35

1040-62

1324-96

48228-544

6-0332

3-3141

36-5

114-67

1046-35

1332-25

48627-125

6-0416

3-3171

36-6

114-98

1052-09

1339-56

49017-896

6-0497

8-3202

36-7

115-30

1057-84

1346-89

49430-863

6-0580

3-8282

36-8

115-61

1063-62

1354-24

49836-082

6-0663

3*8262

36-9

115-92

1069-41

1361-61

50248-409

6-0745

3-3292

87-0

116-24

1075-21

1869-00

50658-000

6-0827

3-8822

37-1

116-55

1081-03

1376-41

61064-811

6-0909

3*3862

37-2

116-87

1086-87

1383-84

51478-848

6-0991

3-3382

37-3

117-18

1092-72

1391-29

61896-117

6-1078

3-3412

37-4

117-50

1098-68

1398-76

62813-624

6-1165

3*8442

37-5

117-81

1104-47

1406-25

52734-375

6-1237

8*3472

37-6

118-12

1110-36

1413-76

58167-376

6-1318

3-8501

37-7

118-44

1116-28

1421-29

68582-638

6-1400

3*8581

37-8

118-75

1122-21

1428-84

54010-152

6-1481

3*3661

37-9

119-07

1128-15

1436-41

64489-989

6-1663

3-3590

38-0

119-38

1134-11

1444-00

54872-000

6*1644

8-8620

38-1

119-69

1140-09

1451-61

55306-341

6-1725

8-3649

38-2

120-01

1146-08

1459-24

56742-968

6-1806

3-3679

88-3

120-32

1152-09

1466-89

56181-887

6-1887

8-8708

38-4

120-64

1158-12

1474-56

96623-104

6-1967

3-3737

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

75

TABLE U—CofUtmied.

n

7m

O

'4

•

na

n8

Vn

:/«

38-5

120-95

1164*16

1482*25

57066*625

6*2048

3*8767

38-6

121-27

1170*21

1489*96

57512*456

6*2129

8-8797

38-7

121-68

1176*28

1497*69

67960*603

6*2209

3*3825

38-8

121-80

1182-37

1505*44

68411-072

6-2289

3-8854

38-9

122-21

1188-47

1513*21

58868*869

6-2370

3-8883

39-0

122-62

1194-59

1521-00

59319-000

6-2450

3-3912

39-1

122*84

1200*72

1628*81

69776-471

6-2530

3-8941

39-2

123-16

1206-87

1536*64

60236-288

6*2610

3-3970

39-3

123*46

1213-04

1544-49

60698-467

6-2689

3-3999 ,

39-4

123-78

1219*22

1552*86

61162-984

6-2769

3-4028

39-5

124*09

1225*42

1560*26

61629-875

6-2849

3-4056

39-6

124-41

1231*63

1568*16

62099-136

6-2928

8-4086

39-7

124-72

1237*86

1576-09

62670-773

6-3008

3-4114

39-8

126-04

1244*10

1684*04

63044-792

6*8087

8-4142

39-9

126-35

1250-36

1592*01

63521-199

6-3166

8-4171

40-0

125-66

1264-64

1600*00

64000-000

6-3245

3-4200

40-1

125-98

1293-93

1608*01

64481-201

6-3325

3*4228

40-2

126-29

1228-23

1616*04

64964*808

6-3404

3-4256

40-3

126*61

1256-56

1624*09

65450-827

6-3482

3-4285

40-4

126-92

1297-90

1632-16

65939*264

6-3561

3-4318

40-5

127*23

1288*25

1640-25

66430-126

6*8639

3-4341

40-6

127-55

1294*62

1648-86

66923-416

6-3718

8*4370

40-7

127*86

1301-00

1656-49

67419-143

6*8796

3-4398

40-8

128-18

1307-41

1664-64

67917-312

6-3875

3-4426

40-9

128*49

1313-82

1672*81

68417-929

6-3953

3-4464

41-0

128*81

1320*25

1681*00

68921-000

6-4031

3-4482

41-1

129*12

1326-70

1689*21

69426*531

6-4109

3-4610

41-2

129-43

1333*17

1697*44

69934-528

6-4187

3-4538

41-3

129-76

1339-65

1705-69

70444-997

6*4265

3*4566

41-4

180-06

1346-14

1713-96

70957*944

6*4343

3-4594

41-0

130*38

1352*65

1722-25

71473-375

6*4421

3-4622

41 '6

130*69

1359*18

1730*56

71991-296

6*4498

3-4650

41-7

131*00

1366-72

1738-89

72511-719

6*4676

3-4677

41-8

131-32

1372*28

1747-24

73034*632

6*4653

3-4706

41-9

181*63

1378*85

1756-61

78660-059

6*4730

3-4783

42-0

131-96

1385*44

1764-00

74088-000

6-4807

3-4760

42-1

132-2^6

1392-05

1772-41

74618-461

6-4884

3-4788

42*2

132-68

1898*67

1780-84

75151-448

6-4961

3-4816

76 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE U— Continued.

n

rn

O

•

n2

««

^/n

I/-

42-8

132-89

1405*81

1789*29

75686-967

6*5088

3*4843

42-4

133-20

1411-96

1797*76

76225-024

6*5115

3-4870

42-6

133-52

1418-63

1806*25

76765-625

6-5192

3*4898

42-6.

133-83

1425-31

1314-76

77308-776

6*5268

3-4925

42-7

134-15

1432-01

1823-29

77854-483

6*5845

3-4952

42*8

184-46

1438-72

1881-84

78402-762

6*5422

3*4980

42-9

1

184-77

1445-45

1840-41

78953-589

6*5498

3*5007

1 43-0

135-09

1452-20

1849-00

79507-000

6-5574

3*5034

i 43-1

135-40

1458-96

1857-61

80062-991

6-5661

3*5061

' 43-2

135-72

1465-74

1866-24

80621-568

6-5727

8*5088

48-3

136-03

1472-54

1874-89

81182-737

6-6808

3-5115

43*4

136-35

1479-34

1883-66

81746-504

6-5879

3-5142

48-5

136-66

1486-17

1892-25

82312-875

6-5954

3-5169

43-6

136-97

1498-01

1900-96

82881-856

6-6080

3-6196

437

137-29

1499-87

1909-69

83453-453

6-6106

3-5223

43-8

137-60

1506-74

1918-44

84027-672

6-6182

3-6250

43-9

137-92

1518-63

1927-21

84604-519

6-6257

.3-5277

44-0

138-28

1520-53

1936-00

85184-000

6-6338

3-5303

44-1

138-54

1527-45

1944-81

86766*121

6-6408

3-5330

44*2

138-86

1584-89

1953-64

86350-888

6*6488

8*5357

44*3

139-17

1541-34

1962-49

86988-307

6-6568

3-5384

44-4

139-49

1541-30

1971-36

87528-384

6-6633

3*5410

44-5

139-80

1555-28

1980-25

88121 -125

6-6708

3*5437

44-6

140-12

1562-28

1989-16

88716-536

6-6783

3*5463

44-7

140-43

1569-30

1998*09

89314-623

6*6858

3*5490

44*8

140-74

1576-83

2007*04

89915-892

6-6933

3-5516

44*9

141-06

1583-87

201601

90518-849

6-7007

3-5643

45-0

141-37

1590-43

2025-00

91125-000

6-7082

3-5569

45-1

141-69

1597-51

2034-01

91733-851

6-7156

3-5695

45*2

142-00

1604-60

2043-04

92346*408

6-7231

3-5621

45-3

142-31

1611-71

2052-09

92959*677

6-7305

3*5648

45-4

142-63

1618*83

2061-16

93576-664

6-7879

3-5674

46-6

142-94

1625-97

2070-25

94196-375

6-7454

3*5700

45-6

143-26

1638-13

2079-36

94818-816

6-7528

8*5726

45-7

143-57

1640*30

2088-49

96448-993

6-7602

3-5752

45-8

143-88

1647*48

2097-64

96071-912

6*7676

3-5778

45-9

144-20

1654*68

2106-81

96702-579

6*7749

3*5805

MATHEMATICAL TABLES

77

TABLE 3^—CotUitwed.

n

ir»

O

n2

T

4

•

n^

»»

^/n

^»

46-0

144*51

1661-90

2116-00

97336-000

6*7823

3-6830

46-1

144-83

1669-14

2126-21

97972-181

6*7897

3-6866

46-2

146-14

1676-39

2134-44

98611-128

6*7971

3*5882

46-3

146-46

1683-65

2148-69

99252-847

6-8044

3-5908

46-4

145-77

1690-98

2162-96

99897*344

6*8117

3-6934

46-5

146-08

1698-23

2162-25

100544-625

6*8191

3-5960

46-6

146-40

1705-54

2171-56

101194-696

6*8264

3*5986

46-7

146-71

1712-87

2180-89

101847-563

6*8337

3*6011

46-8

147-03

1720-21

2190-24

102503-232

6*8410

3*6037

46-9

147-34

1727-57

2199-61

103161-709

6*8484

3*6063

47-0

147-65

1784-94

2209-00

103823-000

6*8656

3*6088

47-1

147-97

1742-34

2218-41

104487-111

6-8629

3*6114

47-2

148-28

1749-74

2227-84

105164-048

6-8702

3-6139

47-3

148-60

1757-16

2287-29

105823-817

6-8776

3*6165

47-4

148-91

1764-60

2246-76

106496-424

6-8847

3*6190

47-5

149*23

1772-06

2266-26

107171-875

6-8920

3-6216

47-6

149-54

1779-52

2265-76

107860-176

6-8993

3-6241

47-7

149-85

1787-01

2276-29

108531-333

6-9065

3-6267

47-8

160-17

1794-61

2284-84

109216-352

6-9137

3-6292

47-9

150-48

1802-08

2294-41

109902-239

6-9209

3-6317

48-0

160-80

1809-56

2804-00

110592-000

6-9282

3*6842

48-1

151-11

1817-11

2318-61

111284-641

6-9364

3*6368

48-2

151-42

1824-67

2323-24

111980*168

6-9426

3-6393

48-3

151-74

1832-26

2332-89

112678-587

6*9498

3-6418

48-4

152-05

1839-84

2342-66

113879-904

6-9570

3-6443

48-5

152-37

1847-45

2362*26

114084-126

6*9642

3-6468

48-6

152-68

1856-08

2361-96

114791-256

6*9714

3*6493

48-7

168-00

1862-72

2371-69

115501-303

6*9786

3-6518

48-8

153-31

1870-38

2381-44

116214-272

6*9867

3-6643

48-9

153-62

1878-05

2391-21

116930-169

6*9928

3-6668

49-0

153-94

1886-74

2401-00

117649-000

7-0000

3*6693

49-1

154-25

1893-45

2410*81

118870-771

7*0071

3*6618

49-2

154-57

1901-17

2420*64

119095*488

7*0143

3*6643

49-3

154-88

1908-90

2430-49

119823*157

7*0214

3*6668

49-4

155-19

1916-65

2440*36

120663*784

7*0286

3-6692

49-5

165-51

1924-42

2460*25

121287 -875

7*0356

3-6717

49-6

155-82

1932-21

2460*16

122023*936

7*0427

3-6742

49-7

166-14

1940-00

2470*09

122763-473

7*0498

3-6767

78 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE U—CotUinwd.

n

m

o

•

n^

n«

v^

1

>

1

49-8

166*46

1947*82

2480*04

123606-992

7*0669

3*6791

49-9

166-77

1966*66

2490*01

124261 -499

7*0640

3-6816

60-0

167-08

1968*60

2600-00

125000-000

7-0711

3*6840

61-0

160*22

2042-82

2601*00

182661*000

7-1414

3-7084

1 62-0

168-86

2123*72

2704-00

140608-000

7*2111

3*7325

63-0

166-60

2206*19

2809-00

148877-000

7-2801

3*7663 ;

54-0

169-64

2290*22

2916-00

167464*000

7-3486

3*7798

55-0

172-78

2376-83

3026-00

166376-000

7-4162

3-8030

56-0

176-93

2463*01

3186-00

176616*000

7-4883

3*8269

67-0

179-07

2661*76

3249-00

186193-000

7-5498

3*8485

58-0

182-21

2642-08

3364-00

196112-000

7-6158

3-8709

69-0

186-36

2783*97

3481-00

206879*000

7-6811

3-8930

60-0

188*49

2827-44

3600-00

216000-000

7-7460

3-9149

61-0

191-63

2922-47

3721-00

226981-000

7-8102

3-9865

62-0

194-77

3019-07

3844-00

238328*000

7*8740

3-9679

68-0

197-92

3117-26

3969-00

260047*000

7-9373

3-9791

64-0

201*06

8216-99

4096-00

262144-000

8-0000

4-0000

66-0

204*20

3318-81

4226-00

274626-000

8-0623

4-0207

66-0

207*34

3421 -20

4866-00

287496-000

8-1240

4*0412

67-0

210*48

3526*66

4489-00

300763*000

8-1854

4*0616

68-0

-213*68

3631-69

4624-00

814432*000

8-2462

4*0817

69-0

216*77

3739*29

4761-00

328609-000

8-3066

4-1016

70-0

219-91

3848*46

4900-00

343000*000

8-3666

4-1213

71-0

228-05

3959-20

6041-00

367911*000

8-4261

4-1408

72-0

226-19

4071-61

5184-00

373248-000

8-4863

4*1602

73-0

229*33

4185-39

6329-00

389017-000

8-5440

4*1793

74-0

232*47

4300-85

6476-00

405224*000

8-6023

4-1983

1

76-0

236*62

4417-87

5626-00

421875-000

8-6603

4-2172

76-0

288*76

4686-47

6776-00

438976-000

8-7178

4*2368

77-0

241-90

4666-63

6929-00

466533-000

8-7750

4-2643

78-0

245-04

4778-37

6084-00

474562-000

8-8318

4-2727

79-0

248-18

4901-68

6241-00

493039-000

8-8882

4-2908

80-0

251-32

5026-56

6400-00

512000-000

8-9443

4-3089

81-0

254*47

5153-01

6661-00

681441-000

9*0000

4-3267

82-0

267-61

5281-03

6724-00

551868-000

9*0564

4-3445

83-0

260-76

6410-62

6889-00

671787-000

9*1104

4-3621

84-0

263-89

6641*78

7066-00

592704-000

9*1652

4*3795

AREAS AND SOLID CONTENTS

79

TABLE Si^Confintud.

n

xn

O

na
V —

4

•

n^

»«

^/s^

IF

85-0

267-03

6674-50

7225-00

614125-000

9-2195

4-3968

86-0

270-17

5808-81

7396-00

636056-000

9-2736

4-4140

87-0

273-32

5944*69

7569-00

658603-000

9-3274

4-4310

88-0

276-46

6082-18

7744-00

681472-000

9-3808

4-4480

89-0

279-60

6221-18

7921-00

704969-000

9-4330

4-4647

90-0

282-74

6361-74

8100-00

729000-000

9-4868

4-4814

91-0

285-88

6503-89

8281-00

753571-000

9-5394

4-4979

92-0

289-02

6647-62

8464-00

778688-000

9-6917

4-5144

93-0

292-17

6792-92

8649-00

804357-000

9-6437

4-5307

94-0

296-31

6939-78

8886-00

830584-000

9-6954

4-5468

95-0

298-45

7088-23

9025-00

857375-000

9-7468

4-5629

96-0

301-59

7238-24

9216-00

884736-000

9-7980

4-5789

97-0

304-73

7389-83

9409-00

912673-000

9-8489

4-5947

98-0

307-87

7542-98

9604-00

941192-000

9-8995

4-6104

99-0

311-02

7697-68

9801-00

970299-000

9-9499

4-6261

100-0

314-16

7854-00

100000-00

1000000-000

10-0000

4-6416

Approximately i>Jd^±b = a±K- and lja^±b = a±»-.^

TABI.B 85.— FORMULiB FOR MENSURATION OF
AREAS AND SOLID CONTENTS.

1. — Triangle.

Area = "o- ^ base x height

If all the sides, a, 6, c, are known and half their sum is represented

by 8, so that s = — - — then

A= V» (« - a)(« - b) (s - c)

2.~0ircle.
Area of circle, if (i =3 diameter, r= radius, and 7r= 3-14159

4

. (^ = 0-7864)
d = l -12838 ^/X

80 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

Area of segment of circle of an arc of a^

Or, if d id the diameter and h the height of segment, calculate
-^ and find the value x, in the following table, corresponding to

-J- ; the square of the diameter multiplied by x, gives the area of

the segment*

Area of segment = xdK

h

h

d

X

d'

•01

•00133

•14

•02

•00876

•15

•03

'00687

•16

•04

•01064

•17

•06

*01468

•18

•06

•01924

•19

•07

•02417

•20

•08

•02944

•21

•09

•08501

•22

•10

•04087

•23

•11

•04701

•24

•12

•05388

•25

•13

•06000

•26

•06683
•07387
•08111
•08864
•09613
•10890
•11182
•11990
•12811
•13646
•14495
•15365
•16226

d

•27
•28
•29
•30
•31
•32
•38
•34
•35
•36
•37
•38
•39

z

•17109
•18002
•18905
•19817
•20737
•21667
•22603
•23647
•24498
•26466
•26418
•27886
•28369

d

•40
•41
•42
•43
•44
•45
•46
•47
•48
•49
•50

•29337
•30319
•31304
•32293
•33284
•34278
•35274
•36272
•37270
•38270
-39270

8. — Cone and Pyramid.

Solid content : S = -^ base x height

Area o f convex surface of right cone : When s = side of cone

= ^/f^ X h^, where r = radius of base and h = height of cone, the area
of convex surface will be

A = vrs.

Area of convex surface A
Content of cylinder S

4. — Cylinder.

2irrA.

base X height.

Convex surface
Surface of segment

6. — Sphere.

A = 4irr2.

A = 2irrh, h = height of segment

Solid content of sphere S = ^r^ir = 4'1888H.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 8l

Solid content of sphere S = ^ird* = O*5280cP.

Radius r = 0*62035 J/content

Content of segment of sphere : If a is the radius of the sectional
area» h tiie height of th6 segment, and r the radius of the sphere,

S =|7rA(8a2+A2)

Solid content of spherical zone : If a and h are the respective radii
of the two terminal surfaces, and h the height.

TABLB 86.— WEIGHTS AND MBASURBS OF
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

1. Metric System (compulsory in France, Germany, Austria, the
Netherlands, Belgium, Luxemburg, Switzerland, ItaJy, Greece,
Turkey, Roumania, Spain, PortugfU, and most of the South
American Republics; optional in Great Britain, the United
States, and Russia).

1 metre (m. ) = 443 •296 Paris lignes = 3 '280899 English feet = 3 '1 8620
Prussian feet =1*00000301 metre des archives.

1 kilometre (km.) = 10 hectometres (hm.)=0'6214 English mile
= 0-1328 Prussian mile = '9375 Russian verst = '5390 nautical
mile = '1347 geographical mile (15 to 1 degree of longitude).

1 lieue (France) = 1 myriametre= 10 km.

1 German mile=7i km. =s 0*996 Prussian mile =4*66 English
miles.

1 hectare (ha.)=100 ares (a.)=10,000 sq.m. =0'01 sq.km.=2'471
English acres.

1 litre (L)=0'001 cb.m. = 1000 c.cm. =0'2201 gallon.

1 hectolitre (hl.)=0'l cb.m. =100 1. =22'01 gallons.

1 kilogram (kg.) =1000 g.= weight of 1 litre of water at + 4° C.
=2 German and Swiss pounds (zollpfund)= 0-999999842
kilogram prototype = 2*2046 pounds avoirdupois = 1 '7857
Austrian pounds = 2*3511 Sweaish pounds = 2*4419 Russian
pounds.

1 gram (g.)=15'432 grains (English).

1 quintal=100 kg. = 196*84 lbs. avoirdupois = 1 cwt 3 qr. 0*84 lb.

1 metrical ton = 1000 kg. =0*9842 English ton = 1*023 American
short tons (at 2000 lbs.).

F

8^ THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 2Q-<J(mtmued.

2. Great Britain and Ireland.

1 foot=0'3047948 m.

1 inch =25 '8995 mm.

1 yard=0*9148836 m.

1 fathom =2 yards.

1 rod (pole, perch) =5^ vards = 5 '029109 m.

1 statute mile =8 furlongs = 820 poles =1760 yards = 5280 feet

= 1 -6098 kilometre (km.).
1 nautical mile= ^th degree (at the equator).

6082*66 feet= 1854*96 m.
1 acres: 4 roods =160 poles =0*40467 ha. =48,560 square feet =4047

square metres.
1 square mile =640 acres =259*0 ha.

1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 277 *274 cubic inches = 4 *536 litres.
1 cubic foot =28*81531.
1 cubic inch = 16*8862 ccm.

1 quarter =8 bushels =82 pecks = 64 gallons =2*903 hi.
1 bushel = 8 gallons = 0*3628 hL
1 fluid ounce =^th pint =28*35 ccm.
1 pound avoirdupois (lb. ) = 16 ounces (oz. ) ^ 7000 grains = '4535926

kg.
1 ounce avoirdupois = 437} grains =28*35 g.
1 gallon = 10 lbs. water =70,000 grains =4 -535926 kg. water.
1 hundredweight (cwt.)=4 quarters (qr.)=8 stones = 112 lbs.

=50-8024 kg.
1 ton =20 cwt =2240 lbs. =1016 '648 kg.
Apothecaries* Weight.
1 pound troy =12 ounces troy = 96 drams =288 scruples =5760

grains=373-24195g.
1 ounce troy =8 drams =24 scruples = 480 grains = 31 *1035 g.
1 ounce troy (for gold and precious stones) =20 pennyweight

(dwt)=480 grains = 31 -1035 g.
1 grain (common to avoirdupois and troy weight) =0*06479895 g.

8. Austria (old measures and weights, now abolished for the metric
system).

1 foot = 0*316102 m., at 12 inches of 12 lines each.

3 ruthen = 5 ldafter=30 feet =360 zoll.

1 meile=4000 klafter=7686'455 m.

1 maass = 1 *415 1.

1 eimer = 40 maass = 1 60 seidel.

1 metze= 61 -49951.

1 Wiener pfund = 560 '012 a.

1 centner =5 stein = 100 pnind=3200 loth.

4. Denmark and Norway employ, as unit of measure, the Prussian
foot, as unit of weight the units of the metrical system, viz.,
kilos, etc

WEIGHTS AND MEASUfeES 83

TABLE 3&--C(mtvn/ued.

5. Prussia (old system, now abolished for the metric system).

1 foot (Rhenish foot) =12 zoll (inches) =144 linien^ 0*313853 m.
1 rathe =12 fuss =3 76624 m.
1 lachter (fathom) = 80 soil = 2 -09326 m.
1 meile= 24,000 fuss = 7682 '5 m.
1 morgen = 180 square ruthen= 0*2553 ha.
1 quart =64 cubic inches =^ cubic foot =1*14503 L
1 scheffel=16 Metsen=48 quarts =0*54961 hi.
1 tonne =4 scheffel=2-19846 hi.
1 klafter=108 cubic fuss = 8*8889 cb.m.
1 schachtruthe = 144 cubic fuss = 4*4519 cb.m.
1 pftmd = 30 loth = 300 quentchen = 500 g.

1 centner =100 pfund=50 kg. (Formerly 1 pfund = 32 loth
=467*711 g. ; 1 centner =110 pmnd.)

6. Russia.

1 foot=l English foot

1 sashehn = 7 feet = 3 arshin = 12 tchetvert =48 vershok = 2 *1 3357 m.

1 verst = 500 sashehn = 1066 '78 m.

1 dessatine=2400 square sashehns = 10925 m.

1 Yedro=10 krushky (stoof)= 12*299 L

1 tchetvert =1 osmini=4 payok=8 tchetverik=209*9 1.

1 pound=32 loth=96 solotnik=9216 doli=0*9028 Eng. lb.

= 409-531 g.
1 berkovets=10 pud =400 pounds = 163 '81 kg.
1 pud = 40 pounds = 36 112 Eng. lb. = 16 '3805 kg.

7. Sweden.

1 foot =10 zoll (inches) =100 lines =0 '97408 Eng. foot =0 '296901 m.
1 famn (fathom) = 3 alnar (ells)=6 feet=5'58445 Eng. feet

= 1-7814 m.
1 mile =6000 fathoms = 6 '6417 Eng. statute miles = 10 '6884 km.
1 kanne=100 cubic inches = 0-57694 Eng. gallon = 2 -617 1.
1 skalpund=100 kom (at 100 art) = 0*9378 Eng. lb. =425 3395 g.
1 centiier=100 skalpund.
1 s]dpspund=20 liespund = 400 skalpund.

8. Switzerland. Metrical measure and weight The following are

sometimes still employed : —

1 fuss = 0-3000 m. =0*9843 Eng. foot
1 juchart=36 are = 0*88956 Eng. acre.
1 maass = l*51 1.
1 saum = 100 maass^l51 1.

0. United States. Weights and measures as in Great Britain, but
instead of the •* long ton " (gross ton) of 2240 lb. , more frequently
the "short ton " (net ton) of 2000 lbs. =907-1852 kg. =0-89285
long ton, is employed.

84 THE TfiCHNlCAL CHfiMlSTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE ^Q^Ccmtinued.
Square Feet, Square Metre.

1 square metre (sq.ni.)= 10*764 squcure feet (English and Russian)
= 10*008 square feet (Austrian) =10-162 square feet (Prussian
and Danish) =11 -344 sauare feet (Swedish).

1 square foot (EngUsh and Kussian)= 0-09290 square metre.

Cubic Feet, Oubio Metre.

1 cubic metre (cb.m.)=35'316 cubic feet (English and Russian).

1 „ „ =31-66 „ . (Austrian).

1 ,• „ =32-346 „ (Prussian and Danish).

1 „ „ =38-209 „ (Swedish).

1 cubic foot (English and Russian) =0*028315 cubic metre.

1 Kilogram per Running Metre

= 0*6719 English pound per running foot.
= 0-6277 zollpfund per Prussian foot.

1 Kilogram per Square Centimetre (for steam pressure)

= 14*228 English pounds per square inch.
= 13*681 zollpfuna per Prussian square inch.
= 13*878 zollpfund per Austrian square inch.

HORSE-POWER (per second).

Kg.-m.

Austria.
Foot-pounds.

Prussia. England.
Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds.

Sweden.
Foot-pounds.

Rassia.
Foot-pounds.

75
76-041

1

1
474-53 1 477-93 542-47 593-90 600-85

481-11 484-56 , 650 602-14 I 609-19

1

75 kilogram-metres taken as unit,
550 English foot-pounds taken as unit,

= 1 Admiralty horse-power per second ;
or, ^3,000 foot-pounds per minute.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

85

TABLB 87.— TABLBS FOR BBDUOING BNQLISH

WmOHTS AND MBASURBS,

TO

AND VIGB VBRSA.

Rednotion of Metrical Measure to Bnglish Measure.

Metre.

Sq.m.

GaD.m.

Feet.

Inches.

Square
feet.

Square
inches.

Gnbio
feet.

Gable
inches.

1

3-2809

89-8706

10-7642

1550-05

85-8161

61026-2

2

6-5618

78-7412

21*5284

8100-09

70-6822

122052-4

3

9-8427

118-1118

32-2926

4650-13

105*9488

183078*6

4

13-1235

157-4824

48-0568

6200-18

141*2644

244104*9

5

16-4044

196-8530

58-8210

7750-28

176*5805

305181*1

6

19-6853

236-2237

64*5852

9800-27

211-8966

366157*8

7

22-9662

275-5943

75-3494

10850-31

247-2126

427183*5

8

26-2471

814*9649

86*1136

12400-36

282-5287

488209*7

9

29-5280

354-3355

96*8778

13950*40

317-8448

549235-9

ElnfiTlish Feet = Metres.

Ft.

0.

1.

2.

3.

4.

6.

6.

7.

8.

9.
2-7482

0-0000

0-8048

0*6096

0-9144

1-2192

1*5240

1-8288

2*1886

2-4884

10

8-0470

8*8637

8*6576

8*9628

4*2671

4*5719

4-8767

5-1816

5-4868

6-7911

20

6*0969

6*4007

6*7056

7*0108

7*8151

7*6199

7-9247

8*2296

8-5842

8-8890

SO

9-1488

9-4486

9*7684

10-058

10*868

10-668

10-978

11*277

11*582

11-887

40

12-192

12-497

12-801

18-106

18*411

18-716

14-021

14*825

14*680

14-985

50

15-240

15-645

15*849

16-154

16*459

16-764

17-068

17-878

17-678

17-988

60

18-288

18*592

18*897

19-202

19-507

19-812

20-116

20-421

20*726

21-081

70

21-886

21*640

21*945

22-250

22-566

22-860

28-164

28-469

28-774

24-079

80

24-884

24*688

24*998

25-298

25*608

26-908

26*211

26-617

26-882

27-127

90

27-482

27*786

28-041

28-846

28-661

28-956

29-260

29-566

29-870

80-175

1

100

80*479

80*784

81-089

81-894

81-699

82-008

82-808

S2-618

82*918

88-228

110

88*527

88*882

84-187

84-442

84*747

85-061

86-866

85-661

86-966

86-271

120

86*575

86*880

87-185

87-490

87-795

88-099

88-404

88-709

89-014

89-818

ISO

89*628

89*928

40-288

40-588

40-842

41-147

41*462

41-767

42-062

42-866

140

42*671

42*976

48-281

48-586

48*890

44-195

44-600

44-805

45-110

45-414

160

45*719

40*024

46-829

46-684

46*988

47-248

47-648

47-858

48*158

48*462

160

48-767

49*072

49-877

49-642

40-986

50-291

60-596

50-901

61*205

51-510

170

51*815

52*120

62*425

52*729

68*084

68*889

68*664

58-948

54*258

54*558

180

54*868

55*168

55-478

55-777

66-082

66-887

56*692

56*997

67-801

57-606

190

57-911

58*216

58-521

58-825

59*180

59-485

59*740

60-045

60-849

60*654

86 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

BnfiTlish Inches = ])fillimetre8.

Inoh.

Mmimetres.

Inches.

Millimetres.

Inches.

Hillimfilins.

1

A

0*89

1

25-4

7

177-8

^

0-79

2

60-8

8

208-2

i»«

1-69

8

76-2

9

228-6

i

8-17

4

101-6

10

264-0

i

6-85

5

127-0

11

279-4

i

12-70

6

152*4

12

804-8

Bn^rlisli Square Feet = Square Metres.

Sq.ft.

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

6.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0-0000

0-0029

01868

0-2787

0-8716

0-4646

0*6674

0*6608

0*7482

0-8861

10

0-9800

1K)219

1-1148

1-2077

1*8006

1-8986

1-4864

1-6798

1-6722

1-7661

20

1*8680

1-9609

2-0488

2-1867

2-2296

2*8226

2*4164

2-6088

2*6012

2-6941

80

2-7870

2-8799

2-9728

8-0667

8-1686

8-2616

8-8444

8-4878

8*6802

8*6281

40

8-7160

8-8069

8-9018

8-9047

4-0876

4-1806

4-2784

4-8668

4*4592

4-6521

60

4-6460

4-7879

4-8808

4-9287

6*0166

6-1096

6*2024

6-2968

5-8882

5*4811

60

6-6740

6-6669

6-7608

6-8627

6*9466

6-0886

6-1814

6*2248

6*8172

6*4101

70

6-6080

6-6969

6-6888

6-7817

6-8746

6-9675

7*0604

7-1688

7-2462

7*8891

80

7-4820

7-6249

7-6178

7-no7

7-8086

7*8966

7-9894

8-0828

8*1762

8*2681

90

8-8610

8-4689

8-6468

8*6897

8-7826

8-8266

8-9184

9-0118

9*1042

9-1971

English Square Inches = Square Centimetres.

Sq. ins

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0*0000

6-4514

12*908

19*854

25-806

82*267

88*706

46-160

51*611

68-062

10

64*614

70-966

77*416 88*868

90-819

96*771

108-22

109-67

116*12

122*68

20

129*08

185-48

141*98

148-88

154-88

161-28

167-74

174-19

180*64

187*09

80

198*64

199*99

206-44

212*90

219-85

225*80

282*25

288-70

245*15

261-60

40

268*06

264*61

270*96

277-41

288-86

290*81

296-76

808-21

809*67

816*12

60

822*67

829*02

885-47

841-92

848-87

864*88

861*28

867-78

874*18

880*68

60

887-08

898*88

899-98

406-44

412-89

419*84

425-79

482*24

488*69

445-14

70

451*60

458-06

464-50

470*95

477-40

488*85

490*80

496*76

508*21

509*69

80

516-11

522*66

525-01.

585-46

541-91

548*87

564*82

561*27

667*72

674*17

90

580-62

587*07

598-58

599-98

606*48

612-88

619-88

626*78

682*28

688-06

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

87

Biifirllsh Oubio Feet = Oabic Metres.

Cub. ft.

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

6.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0-0000

0*0288

0*0566

0-0849

0*1188

0*1416

0-1609

0-1982

0*2265

0*2548

10

0-2882

0-8115

9*8898

0-8681

0*8964

0*4247

0-4580

0*4814

0*6007

0*6880

20

0-66e8

6-5946

0-6229

0-6518

0*6796

0-7079

0-7862

0-7645

0*7928

0*8211

80

0-8404

0-8778

0*9061

0-9844

0*9627

0-9910

1-0194

1-0477

1-0760

1*1048

40

1-1820

1*1609

1-1892

1*2176

1*2469

1*2742

1-8025

1-8808

1-8691

1*8875

60

1-4168

1*4441

1*4724

1-5007

1*5290

1*5578

1-5857

1*6140

1*6428

1*6706

60

1*6989

1*7272

1*7566

1-7889

1*8122

1*8405

1-8688

1-8971

1-9264

1*9588

70

1-9621

2-0104

2*0687

2-0670

2*0958

2-1286

2-1520

2*1808

2-2086

2-2860

80

2-2652

2-2986

2*8219

2*8502

2-87»i

2*4068

2-4851

2-4684

2*4917

2*5201

90

2*5484

2-5767

2*6050

2*6888

2*6616

2*6900

2-7188

2*7466

2*7749

2*8082

Bnglish Cubic Inches « Oubio Centimetres.

'c5ub.in.

1

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

1

1

0-0000

16*886

82-772

49*159

65-546

81-981

98*817

114-70

181-09

147*48

10

168-86

180-25

196*68

218*02

229-41

246-79

262*18

278-56

294-95

811*84

20

827-72

844-11

860-50

876*88

898*27

409-66

426*04

442-48

458*81

476-20

SO

491-69

507*97

524-86

540*74

657-18

678-52

689-90

606-29

622*67

689*06

40

655*45

671*88

688-22

704-61

720-99

787-88

768-76

770-16

786-64

802*92

; 50

819*81

886-69

852-08

868-47

884-85

901*24

917-68

934-01

960-40

966-78

1 60

988-17

999*56

1015-9

1082-8

1048-7

1066*1

1081-5

1097*9

1114-8

1180-6

; 70

1147-0

1168*4

1179-8

1196-2

1212-6

1229-0

1245-8

1261-7

1278-1

1294-6

80

1810-9

1827-8

1848-7

1860-1

1876-4

1892*8

1409-2

1452-6

1440-9

1468-4

00

1474-8

1491-1

1607-5

1528-9

1540-8

1666-7

1578-1

1689-6

1606-8

1622-2

Bnglish Pounds = Kilograms.

Libs,

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

0-0000

0-4686

0-9072

1-8608

1-8144

2-2680

2-7216

8-1761

8*6287

4-0828

10

4*6859

4*9896

5-4481

6-8967

6-8608

6-8089

7-2675

7-7111

8-1647

8-6188

20

9*0719

9-6264

9-9790

10-488

10-886

11*840

11-798

12-247

12-701

18-154

80

18*608

14-061

14-515

14-969

15-422

16-876

16*829

16*788

17-287

17*690

40

18144

18-697

19-051

19-604

19-968

20*412

29-866

21-819

21-772

22-226

50

22*680

28-188

28-687

24-040

24-494

24-948

25-401

25-866

26 808

26-762

60

27-216

27-669

28128

28-676

29-080

29-484

29-987

80-891

80-844

81-296

70

81-761

82-206

82-669

88-112

88-666

84-019

84-478

84-927

85-880

85-884

80

86-287

86-741

87-196

87-048

88-102

88-566

89-009

89-468

89-916

40-870

90

1

40-828

41-277

41-781

42-184

42-688

48-091

48-546

48-998

44-452

44-906

88 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

Bnfirlisli Tons = Kilograms.

•

§

0.

1.

o

1

3.

4.

5.

G.

1.

8.

9.

^

0-0000

1016

9063

8048

4064

5060

6096

ni2

8139

9145

10

10161

11177

1S19S

18309

14335

15341

16367

17278

18389

10805

20

a0321

21887

83853

38869

34886

35402

96418

27484

98450

29466

80

8048S

81498

88514

88580

84546

85562

86578

37594

88610

89627

40

40tf48

41659

43675

48601

44707

457SS

46789

47755

48771

49787

1

50

60SOS

61819

53885

58851

54868

55884

56000

57916

58982

59948

eo

00964

61960

63996

64012

65038

66044

67060

68076

69092

70108

70

niS5

7S141

78157

74173

75189

76305

77231

78887

79258

80969

. 80

81985

88803

88817

84888

86846

86866

87883

88808

89414

90480

90

91446

9SS46

98478

94494

95510

96536

97543

96558

99574

100590

1

BnflTllsh Grains ^Qranifi.

Gralna.

0.

1.

2.

8.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

I

t

9.

•065

•1296

•194

-259

•824

-889

•464

-518

-583

10

•648

•718

•778

•842

•907

•972

1-037

1^102

1-166

1-281

20

1-296

1-861

1*426

1^490

1-555

1-620

1-685

1-749

1-814

1-879

SO

1-944

2^009

2*074

2-138

2-203

2-268

2-333

2-897

2-462

2-527

40

2-502

2-657

2*721

2-786

2-851

2*916

2-981

8-045

3-110

3-175

50

8*940

8-305

3-860-

8-484

3-499

3-564

3-629

3*693

8-758

3-823

60

3-888

8-958

4*018

4-082

4-147

4-212

4-277

4-341

4-406

4-471

70

4*586

4-601

4*666

4-730

4-795

4-860

4-995

4-989

5-054

5-119

80

5-184

5-249

5*814

5-378

5-448

5-508

6-578

5687

5-702

5-767

90

5*882

5-897

5-962

6-026

6-091

6-156

6-291

6-986

6-850

6-415

1

Qrams = Bofi^lish Grains.

Qrams.

0.

•1.

•2.

•8.

-4.

-5.

*6.

•7.

-8.

-9.

1-543

3-086

4-629

6-172

7-716

9-269

10-802

12-345

13-808

1

15-432

16-975

18-618

20-061

21-604 23-148

24-691

26-284

27-777

29-820

2

80*864

39-407

38-950

36-493

87036

88*580

40-123

41*666

48-200

44-762

3

46-296 47-839

49*382

50-925

62-468

54-012

66-565

67-098

58-641

60-184

4

61-728 63-271

04-814

66-375

67-900

69-444

70-987

72-580

74*073

75-616

5

1

77-160 78-703

1

80-246

81-789 88-832

84-876

86-419

87-962

89-505

91-048

WEIGHT OF SHEET METALS

89

1 English pound (lb.) per sq. foot = 4*883 kg. per sq. metre (sq.m.)

1 „ „ „ sq. inch = 0*07031 kg. per sq.m.

1 „ ton per sq. inch = 158 kg. per sq.cm.

1 „ pound per cub. foot = 16*02 gm. per litre.

1 kilogram per sq. metre =r 0*2048 lb. per sq. foot.

1 English grain per gallon ■- 0*014286 gm. per litre.

1 „ „ „ English cub. foot =: 2*287 gm. per cub. metre.

1 grm. per litre = 70 grains per gallon = 0*06248 lb. per cub. foot.

1 metre-kilogram (mkg.) = 7*235 foot-pounds.

1 foot-pound = 0*1382 mkg.

1 foot-pound per cub. foot = 4*8807 mkg. per cub. met

TABIiB 38.— WBIQHT OF SHBBT MBTALS.
Weight of a Superficial Foot.

Thick-
ness.

Wrought
Iron.

Cast
Iron.

Steel.

Copper.

Brass.

Lead.

Zinc.

Inch.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

Lb.

^

2*53

2*34

2*55

2*89

2*73

3*71

2*34

i

6*06

4*69

5*10

5*78

5-47

7*42

4*69

1^

7*58

7*03

7*66

8*67

8-20

11*13

7*03

i

10*10

9*38

10*21

11*76

10-94

14-83

9*38

12*63

11*72

12*76

14*45

13-67

18-54

11*72

1

16*16

14*06

15*31

17*34

16*41

22*25

14*06

A

17*68

16*41

17*87

20*23

19*14

26*96

16*41

i

20-21

18*75

20-42

23*13

21-88

29*67

18*75

A

22*73

21*09

22*97

26*02

24*61

33*38

21*09

f

25*27

23*44

25*52

28*91

27*34

37-08

23*44

H

27*79

25*78

28*07

31*80

30*08

40*79

25*78

1

30*81

28*13

30-63

34*69

32*81

44*50

28*13

H ^

32*84

30*47

33-18

37*68

35*55

48*21

30*47

i

85*87

32*81

36*73

40*47

38*28

61*92

82*81

H

37*90

35*16

38*28

43*36

41*02

65*63

35*16

1

40*42

37*50

40*83

46*25

43*75

69*33

37*50

90 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLB 89.--00INAaB OF DIFFBRIINT

OOUNTRIBS.

Bxact Valne in
£ s. cL

1 Vereins Thaler ( = 1 foimer PnissUm Thaler) 2 11 -24

1 Gii]den = 100 Neukremer 1 11*49

1 Maria Theresia Thaler 4 1*46

1 Dukaten 9 4*78

4 Gulden Gold =10 Francs; 8 Gulden Gold =- 20 Francs

BeUrliun = France,

Brasll —
lMilreis=1000Reales 2 8*48

OhUi—
1 Peso =100 Centavos 8 11*58

Denmark —

1 RigstMUikdaler=6Marks = 90Sklllings . . 2 2'67
1 Krone =100 Oere 1 0*83

Bast India —
1 Rupee = 16 Annas 14

B«ypt—

1 Bag of Gold =80,000 Piastres . . . . 273 2 10
1 Piastre =40 Para 2*5

Prance —

1 Franc =100 Centimes 9*516

The 20-Franc piece contains 5'8065 g. fine gold . 15 10*81
The 5-Franc piece contains 22*5 g. &e silver . 3 11*58

German Umpire —

1 Mark =100 Pfennig 11*748

The 20-Mark piece contains 7*1685 g. fine gold . 19 6*96
The 5-Mark piece contains 25 g. fine silver .

• • •

Great Britain —

1 Pound Sterling contains 7*8224 g. fine gold . 10
1 Shilling contains 5*231 g. fine silver . . . 10

COINAGE OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 91

TABLE 39— Continued,

Exact Value in

Greece— £ $. d.

1 Drachma = 100 Lepta=l Franc ( = France). 9*516

Italy—

1 Lira =1 Franc (= France) 9*516

Japan —

1 Gold Yen 4 1

1 Piastre (Peso, Mexican Dollar) =8 Reales=100

Cents 4 3-5

1 Doblon= 16 Piastres 3 8 8

Netherlands —

1 Guilder =100 Cents 18

1 Willems d'Or 16 6-4

1 Ducat 9 4-5

Nomray —

1 Krone=100 Oere 1 0*83

1 Species Daler= 120 SIdliings .... 4 5*43

1 Toman = 10 Keran 9 0*31

1 Rupee Silver 1 6*2

Peru —

lSol(Peso)=10Dineros = 100Centavos . . 3 11*58

Portugal —

1 Milreis (in accounts) 4 6-75

1 Milreis (silve^ 4 0*46

lTostao=100Reis 4-8

Roomanla —

lPiastre=l Franc (France) 9-516

92 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

TABLE 39— Continued,

Roesia —

1 Silver Rouble = 100 Kopeks ....
1 Half-Imperial = 5 Rouble Gold = 5 '9987 g. fine gold
1 Paper Rouble

Servia—
1 Dinar =1 Franc (= France)

Spain —

1 Peseta =1 Franc (= France) ....

1 Duro (Spanish Dollar) =2 Escudos = 5 Pesetas

= 20 Reales

Exact value in

£ s. d.

8 2-06
16 4-61
2 7-7

9-516

9-516
3 11-58

Sweden —

1 Kronor=100 Oere

0-83

Switzerland = France.

Turkey —

1 Piastre = 40 Para=120 Asper
1 Turkish Pound (Yuslik) .

United States —

1 Dollar =10 Dimes = 1 00 Cents ,

1 Eagle = 10 Dollars = 15 -0463 g. fine gold

.

21

18

1

4

1-15

2

1

1-16

SPECIAL PART

F THE \

r- r^ o t'r \j Vi

OF

UNIVERSITY ,i

OF

;

^^^LlFG^N'i^

FUEL AND FURNACES 95

I. FUBL AND FX7RNA0SIS.

A. — ^Fuel.

Should be tested in the case of lignite, peat, ooal, coke. Bef er
to the Appendix as to sampling.

1. MoMPure. — Reat 100 to 200 g. of coal to 106" C. (not
aboveX for two hours, preventing access of air as much as
possible. At a higher temperature the result might be too hi^h,
owing to escape of volatile matters, or too low, owing to a partial
oxidation. The sample should be oroken up quiddy into pieces
not smaller than a bean, otherwise too much water would
evaporate during the process. Lignite and peat are heated to
100 C. for five or six hours, and repeatedly weighed, till no
further diminution of weight takes place. Coke is heated to'
110** C. for two hours.

All other tests are made with air-dried material. The average
sample is weighed before taking the samples for tiie tests ; it is
then spread out in a thin layer and allowed to lie in ordinal^ dry
air for forty-eight hours. It is then weighed again, and the
results obtained with such air-dried fuel are calculated on the
original (undried) material.

2. Residual^ (Joke {Fixed Carbon). — One g. of finely powdered
coal is placed in a platinum crucible at least 1^ in. deep, provided
with a tightly fitting cover. The crucible should then be heated
by means of an ordinary Bunsen burner, the flame of which should
not be less than 7 in. high. ^ The crucible should be supported on
a triangle of thin wire, and it should be so placed that the space
between the bottom and the top of the burner is not more than
1|^ in. The heatin|^ ought not to last longer than a few minutes,
but must be contmued as long as any appreciable quantity oi
inflammable matter escapes. If the flame be smalier, or the
crucible be supported by a stout wire triangle, the yield of coke
will be too high. The results should always be calculated upon
coal or coke free from ash, in order to render them comparative.
Grood coal for reverberatory furnaces should yield from 60 to 70
\yQT cent, of coke.

3. A8h, — This estimation is very simple for lignite or peat ;
coke requires a very high temperature ; coal which cakes presents
most dimculties. The latter must be powdered very finely, and
heated up gradually, so that tiie volatile matters may escape
before the powder can form a cake. If an analysis is only
occasionally required, 1 to 3 g. of finely ground coal is heated
in a platinum crucible, which is fitted in a hole into a stoneware

96 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

slab, or better, in asbestos board (Fig. 1). This is placed in a
slanting position on a tripod stand. The slab serves to separate
the air required for oxidation from the gases of the burner, and
greatly hastens the combustion, which is thus con^pleted in two
hours, whereas without the slab it frequently remains incomplete
even after eight or ten hours' heating. It is not advisable to use
a blow-pipe, because the chance of mechanical loss is thereby
greatly mcreased. If determinations have to be made frequently,
It is preferable to e£fect the combustion in a muffle furnace, or
still more quickl^r in a platinum boat placed in a heated porcelain
tube, through which a current of oxygen is passed. When using
the latter, the coal or coke should be broken in small pieces, and
not ground fine, or else the oxygen does not come sufficiently into
contact with the lower strata.

Where frequent tests have to be made, several platinum dishes

can be placed in a mime at the same
time. It is best to cover the dishes
or boats at first bv a mica plate and
to remove this only when the gases
have been driven off. after which the
ignition is continuea, until no more
black spots are visible and the weight
remains constant.

4. Svlphur (Eschka's method). —

Mix 0*6 to 1 ^. of the finely ground

coal with 1^ times its weight of an

Fio. 1. intimate mixture of 2 parts of well-

bumt magnesiaand 1 part of anhydrous
sodium carbonate. The mixture is made in a platinum crucible by
means of a glass rod, and the crucible^ without putting on the
cover, is heated in an inclined position^n such manner that only
its lower portion attains a red heat. This is most conveniently
done b^ placing it in an asbestos board, provided with a hole, as
shown in Fig. 1. The combustion of the sulphides to sulphates
should be promoted by frequent stirring with a thick platinum
wire ; it will be finished in about an hour, during which time the
grey colour of the mixture mostly passes into yellow, red, or
brown. The calcined mass is covered with water and bromine
water added, until the liquid shows a slight yellow colour. Then
heat the whole to boiling, decant the liquid through a filter, and
wash the residue with hot water. Add hydrochloric acid to the
aqueous solution, boil tiU all the bromine has been removed and
the liquid has been decolorised, and add a solution of barium
chloriae, drop by drop, always at a boiling heat, until the precipi-
tation is complete. If the magnesia or the sodium carbonate
employed are not quite free from sulphates, these must be
separately estimated and the amount deducted from the total
sulphur found. Even if the gas employed for heating the crucible

f UEL ANt) FURNACES 97

should cohlain a notable quantity of sulphur, there is nO error
caused by this, if the products of combustion are kept away from
the contents of the crucible by the asbestos ^eld as shown in
the figure. One part BaS04 indicates 0*1373 parts S.

5. The c<dorific power of fuel can be estimated by ascertaining
the percentage of carbon and hydrogen, according to the ordinary
methods of elementary analysis, and calculating tne results accord-
ing to Dulong's formula. In the case of coal it is necessary to
take accoimt of the volatile sulphur — that is, that which is
determined by heating in a current of oxygen, passing the gases
through neutralised hydrogen peroxide, and titrating the sulphuric
acid formed. If the percentage of C, H, and (volatUe) S, and that
of the moisture (W), is known, the percentage of the oxygen is
expressed by the equation : —

0=100 -(C + H + S + W + ash).

The nitrogen contained in the coal may be neglected. The calorific
power of the coal, expressed in gram-calories, is then

= 80-3C + 288 (H--g-) + 25S-6W.

A direct estimation of the heating power of fuel can be made
by means of the caJorimetric bomb, of which a description is
given in Tech. Meth.^ vol. i., p. 254.

B. — Furnaces.

I. Chimney Gases, — In these, CO*, O, CO, and N (the latter
by difference) are most conveniently estimated by the Orsat
apparatus, shown in Fig. 2. This consists of a gas-burette, A,
connected with the level-bottle B by means of a rubber tube.
A is filled to the zero point with water, and by lowering B gas is
aspirated, either from the supply tube C or from the absorption
pipettes D, E, F. The gas is iforced into each of these pipettes
by opening its special tap and raising B. For reading the volume
of gas in A, the Dottle B must be held in such a position that the
level of water is the same in A and B.

The absorption pipettes are charged as follows : — Tube D
receives 110 c.c. of caustic potash solution of specific gravity 1*20
to 1*28. This absorbs CO2, and can serve for a long time. Tube
E serves for absorbing the oxygen by means of very thin sticks
of phosphorus, kept imder water. This tube^ when not in use,
should be protected from the light by a covering of black paper.
Any tarry matters getting into this tube render the phosphorus
inactive, and must therefore be kept out by filtering the gas
before entering into C, through asbestos, cotton-wool, or other
material. The absorption of the oxygen by the phosphorus only

G

98 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

seta in at 16° C, better at 18° C. In case the room is at a Wer
temperature, the Teasel £ must be cautioasly warmed up by *
spint-lamp. In tube F the carbon monoiide is absorbed. For
t£is purpose a solution is prepared hj shaking up in a closed
bottle S&O g. caprma chloride with a solution of SCO g. am-
moniuiti chloride in 750 c.c water. When completed, a spini
of copper wire, reaching from top to bottom, is utrodaced into
the stock bottle. This bottle ia always kept well closed when

not in use. Before charging tube F, 3 voIb. of the solution from
the stock bottle are mixed with 1 -vol. liquor ommoniie, specific
gravity 0'906. One c.c, of this mixture ought to absorb 18
c.cm. CO, but this requires prolonged shaking. The reagent in F
must be frequently renewed j if this is neglected, it may even yield
up some 00 to gases contamin^ too little of it. The reagent in
F also absorbs ethylene, but this gas does not occur in chunney
gases. Since the solution in F also absorbs oxygen, the latt«t
must always be removed before employing pipette F.

FUEL AND FURNACES 99

For daily use it is mostly sufficient to test merely for CO-j, by
means of the caustic i)otasli solution in mpette D.

Checking the working of /Vrwacc».—Tne estimation of COj in
the chimney gases, if combined with an observation of tempera-
ture, admits of checking both the efficiency of a furnace or boiler
and the daily work of the firemen, according to a formula worked
out by Lunge {Zsch, f. a/ngew. Chem., 1889jp. 240). A consecu-
tive number, say from 10 to 15 tests for COg, are made by an
Orsat apparatus in the flue leading from the furnace to the
chimney, and the mean volume percentage of CO* found is
called n. At the same time, a thermometer with very long stem,
tightly iiiserted in the testing hole in such manner that its bulb
is well within the flue, but that the scale can be read off outside,
is observed at frequent intervals, and the mean temperature oi
the gases is called t\ that of the air outside t c is the specific
heat of a cubic metre of CO2, expressed in gram-calories ; c' that
of N or O (see below). The total volume of exit-gases produced
by the combustion of 1 kg. of carbon burnt on the grate is

) cubic metres, and the loss of heat in the

exit-gases, expressed in gram- calories : —

L = 1 -854 {i'-i)c^\ -854 {V - t) i ^^~ **) c'.

The loss, expressed in per cent, of the heat theoretically given out
by the carbon, is : —

I DOL

8080

The value of c' may be assumed for all temperatures =0*31 ;

that of c varies with the temperature, and must be taken as
follows : —

If t' is below 150' C. , r; = '41.

„ between 150-200' =0*43.

200-250' =0-44.

250-300° =0-45.

300-350' =0-46.

Note. — The observations of n and t' must be made several
times in succession^ and the average value taken as final. For
accurate investigations several series of tests must be made at
different times of the day.

Instruments have been devised for a continuous approximate
check of the percentage of CO2 in chimney gases, such as Arndt's
Q5conometer.

2. G<M from Prodivcers {Generatat's), — In this usually only
CO2 and CO are estimated by means of Orsat's apparatus, as
described, p. 97. Any ethylene present in the producer gas would

100 The technical chemists- handbook

be estimated in the residue from abaorbing COj, CO CgH,, and
O hy mixing it with a measured volume of air, and passing the
mixture over gently heated platinum or palladium asbestos.*
The estimation ia moat conveniently done in Lunge's modification
of Oraat|9 apparatus, Fig. 3. The indicating letters correspond
to those in Fig. 3, but there is an additional U-tube, G, connectol
with a capilhuy, H, of refractory glass, H contains platinum or

Plladinm asbestos and can be heated by the small spirit lamp
turning on a pivot. The U-tube G ia filled with water. The
^ freed from CO^ CO CjH,, and O (If this be present) is mixed
m the gas-burette A with as much air an the space will allow, and

> Tills can be obtsliied retdy.made or la piepired by BoakliiK m tev/ tbiuils of \M
iioft mbeilOB bi a Btrong solntlon of plsttnnm or pslUdiam cblorlds, mliod witli »

Blkaltoo rMctlon, After onahour's sCBking tho iffliestos t« drlel complHtBly insuitH-

FUEL AND FURNACES 101

a reading is taken. This ftir will suffice for a quantity of hydrogen
coireaponding to -^ of the employed volume of air (i.e., twice the
volume of oxygen contained in that air). If more H bo present,
which will only occur with " wat«r gas," either less than 100 c.c.
of gas must be employed at the commencement for the analysis,
or the reaidoal gas is mixed with oxygen instead of with Mr.
The capillary tube H is heated very gently by means of the
lamp I, and the gaseous mixture is quickly passed once through
it into G and back again, when one end of the platinum asbestos
should become red hot. The residual gas is again measured and
H of the diminution in volume calculated as hydrogen. If
methane (marsh fps, CHJ is to be estimated, the residue from
the last operation is mixed with more air and burnt by means of
an electrically heated palladium or platinum wire, enclosed in a
capillary tube. If a capillary platinum tube is employed, filled

with a few platinum wires, so as to leave a very small apace for
the gases to pass through, the electric heating mav bo replaced
by that of a Droa,d gsis flame, producing a strong rea heat.

3, Speed of Draught. — A convenient apparatus for measuring
this in chemical works, where any fine mechanism would soon
be ruined, is Fletcher's anemometer, based upon the movement
of a column of ether in a U-tnbe (described in Lunge's Sidp/mric
Add and Alkali, 3rd edition, vol, i., p. 564). Fig. 4 shows this in
the simpler form, leaving out the microscopes, which are quite
unnecessary for reading ^e divisions of the scale or the vernier.
The ends of the glass tubes a b should be placed rather less than
one-sixth of the diameter of the flue from its inner wall. The
straight end of a ought to be aiS exactly parallel as possible to the

102 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

direction of the draughts ; the end of b ought to be exactly at a
rigfht angle to this, and so Uiat the current olows straight into it.
Without this precaution a mistake is made, which is avoided by
the arrangement shown in Fig. 5, and proposed by Hurter, viz.,
employing tubes with ends bent in opposite directions. The
tubes a b communicate with the ether tube c d: the draught
causes the ether to rise in a by aspiration and to fall in 6 by the

Eressure of the air blowing into the tube. The difference of level
etween c and d is read off by means of the scale and vernier.
The sliding disc e is then turned through 180", whereby the
currents are reversed. There will now be a difference of levels in
the opposite direction, but equal in amount to the first, if the
observation is correct. The sum of these two differences is the
** anemometer reading " given in the tables.

The following tables show the application of the readings of the
Anemometer for calculating the speed of draughts, both for instru-
ments graduated on the inch scale and for those on the metrical
scale.

a.— TABLB TO SHOW THB SPUED OF CURRENTS OF AIR.

At a temperature of 15* C.*:60° F. ; Barometer, 760 mm. =29*92 inches.
A.— Readln£rs in Inches.

Anemom-
eter
Beading.
Inches.

•01
•02
•03
•04
•05

•06
•07
•08
•09
•10

•11
'12
•13
•14
•15

Speed..

Feet

X)er

Second.

Anemom-
eter
Beading.
Inches.

2-855
4-038
4^945
5-710
6-384

6-993
7-554
8-075
, 8-565
9-028

0^469
9*891
10-29
10^68
11-06

-16
•17
•18
•19
•20

•21
-22
•23

-24
•25

•26

•27

•28

•29
^30

Speed.

Feet

per

Second.

11^42
11-77
12^11
12^45
12^77

13-08
13-39
13-70
13-99
14-28

14-56
14-84
15-11
16 •38
15-64

Anemom-

eter

Beading.

Inches.

•32
-34
•36
-38
•40

•45
•50
•55
•60
•65

•70
-75
•80
•85
•90

Speed.

Feet

per

Second.

Anemom-
eter
Beading.
Inches.

16^16
16-65
17-13
17-60
18-06

19-15
20-18
21-17
22-12
23-02

23^89
24^73
26-54
26-32
27-08

•96
1-00
1-25
1-60
1^75

2^00

Speed.
Feet
per

Second.

27-83
28-65
31-93
34-97
37-77

40-37

FUEL AND FURNACES

103

B. — ReadlngB in MlHimetres.

Read-
ing.

nun.
0-1
0-2
0-8
0-4
0-6

0*6
0-7
0-8
0-9
1-0

1*1
1-2
1-8

Speed.

Read
ing.

Speed.

Read.

ing.

Speed,

Bead,
ing.

Speed.

Bead-
ing.

Speed.

m.
0-676
0-771
0-944
1-090
1-206

1-841
1-442
1-6<K)
1-086
1-724

1*806
1-889
1-966

Bead-
ing.

Speed.

mm.

m.

mm.

m.

mm.

m.

' mm.

m.

mm.

1-4

2040

2-7

2*888

6*0

8*865

100

5*462

19*0

1-6

2'111

2-8

2-886

6*2

8*981

10*6

5*586

20*0

1-6

2-181

2-9

2-986

6*4

4-006

1 11*0

5*718

21

1-7

2-248

80

2*986

5*6

4*080

11*6

5*846

22

1-8

2-818

8-2

8*077

6*8

4*162

' 12-0

5-972

28

1-9

2-876

8-4

8*179

6*0

4*228

12*6

6-095

24

2-0

2-488

8-6

8*271

6-5

4-895

18*0

6*216

25

21

2*498

8*8

8*861

7*0

4*661

18*6

6*884

80

2-2

2-667

4*0

8*448

7*5

4-721

14*0

6*450

85

2-8

2-615

4-2

8-469

8*0

4*876

; 15*0

6*667

40

2-4

2*671

4-4

8*616

8*6

6-026

1 16-0

6*896

45

2-6

2-726

4-6

8*698

9*0

5172

, 170

7*108

50

2-6

2-779

4-8

8*777

9*6

6*814

1 18*0

7*814

1

m.
7*515
7*710
7*900
8*086
8*268

8*446

8*620

9*448

10*199

10*908

11*565
12*190

/3.— CORRBCTIONS FOR TBMPBRATURB.

Column a shows the temperature of the chimney or ilue, column 6
the factor for multiplying the figure found in Table a in order to arrive
at the real speed of the current of gas.

A. — ReadinflTS in Defirrees Fahrenheit.

Fahr.
a.

6.

a.

5.

a.

h.

a.

b.

1-0634

90

0-9723

180

0-9012

380

0-7865

5

1 -0577

95

0-9679

185

0-8977

400

0-7763

10

1-0620

100

0-9636

190

0-8943

425

0-7663

15

1 -0464

105

0-9595

195

0-8909

450

0-7556

20

1-0409

110

0-9551

200

0-8875

475

0-7454

25

1-0355

115

0-9509

210

0-8808

500

0-7356

30

1 -0302

120

0-9468

220

0-8743

525

0-7261

35

1-0250

125

0-9428

230

0-8680

650

0-7171

40

1-0198

130

0-9388

240

0-8614

575

0-7085

45

1-0148

135

0-9348

250

0-8567

600

0-7000

50

1-0098

140

0-9309

260

0-8497

650

0-6841

55

1-0049

145

0-9270

270

0-8438

700

0-6691

60

1-0000

150

0-9232

280

0-8380

750

0-6552

65

0-9952

155

0-9194

290

0-8324

800

0-6420

70

0-9905

160

0-9156

300

0*8269

850

0-6297

75

0-9858

165

0-9119

320

0-8163

900

0-6181

80

0-9812

170

0-9083

340

0-8060

950

0-6070

85

0-9767

175

0-9047

360

0'7960

1000

0*5964

104 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK
B.— BeadlDffB In Desrees OMitigrwte.

.%.

*-

t"c.

^-

t'c.

>■

t"c.

t""c.

'■

10

«

niN«.

■flfl

o-er*

HO

^.^1,^

0-7M ■

«

^

0-9aT

B

OMl .

A very simple smd cheaper instrument is Seger'a Differential
Anemometer, Fi^. 6. The U-tube A is surmoianted b^ two
enlargements, B and C. D ia a sliding
scale, atljiistable by slite oa and screw-
pins bb. The tube ia filled with two non-
miscible liquids of nearly equal specific
gravity ; for instance, paraffin oil and dilute
spirits of wine (coloured). The line of con-
tact, at X^ is the zero ^int of the scale D.
If an aspiratmg force is actjne: on the sur-
face of the Uqiiid in C, the level of the
liquid will be raised in u, and the point X
will be lowered in a multiplied ratio, corre-
spondinff to the difference in the sectional
areas of the* narrow part of A and the
enlargements in C, say 1 ; 20.

C. — Temperattire.

The measurement of temperatures up to
about 300° C. calls for no special remark, as
the ordinarv- mercurial thermometers toe
always nsed. For higher temperatures a
large number of pyrometen have been con-
structed. All of these are unreliable wfter
prolonged use, many of them even from the
Pio. fl. very beginninf;, and they require a frequent

control of their indications Dy calorimetric
methods. Among these "empirical" pyrometers those mostly
used are : Gauntlett's (up to 900° C. or 1600° FA, Steinle and
Hartung's graphite pyrometer (up to 1200° C), or KJinghammer's

FUEL AND FURNACES 105

Thalpotasimeter. In many cases Prinaep'e metallic alloys, of
definite fueing points, and SegeHs conea, do good service; the
fnsingpoints corresponding to tne commercial forms of tlieac have
been given on p. 37.

The calorimetric control can be effected by any of the well-
known calorimeters, such as Mahler's or Fischer's, but is a some-
what difficult and complicated operation, and the working of the
air pyrometer is even more so.

Most of the drawbacks formerly connected with pyrometry
have been removed by the construction of Le Chateher s Thermo-
electric Pi/rmneter. Its working part is shown in Fig. 7. It con-
sists of a thermo-couple, composed of wire a of pure platinum
and a wire 6, of an alloy of 90 parta of platinum -f-io parts of
rhodium, soldered to the former. These wires are insulated by
{>orcelain tubes c, d, about 3 feet long, and protected on the out-
side, against heating gases, by the iron pipe e, e. The wires arc

connected with platinum or copper wires, leading to a galvan-
ometer, and the indications of tne needle of the Eitter show the
temperature at the point where a and b are soldered together.
The temperature scale marked on the galvanometer is fixed by
comparing it with an air pyrometer at the works where the
instruments are made.

The following rules must be observed for the use of this
pyrometer. The galvanometer should be placed in a horizontal
position and so as to be protected against mechanical oscillations,

fireferably on a wall-bracket, and this may be at some distance
rom the pyrometer itself— ij.gf., in the manager's office. Before
moving the galvanometer from its p!ac«, the needle should be
al way St arrested. After fixing it on its bracket, the arresting-
screw is cautiously loosened, until the needle begins to move.
If it does not point to zero, after being placed in a horizontal
position, this must be effected by moving the adjusting screws.
The electric resistance of the conducting wire should not appreci-
ably exceed 1 ohm ; up to distances of about 300 feet this will be

106 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

attained by employing insulated copper wire of ^inch thickness.
The junction of the couple with the conducting wires ought not
to be much above the orainary temperature. If one of the wires
should break, the contact can be re-established bi^ twisting the
ends tightly together for a length of about } inch ; it is preferable
to fuse them together in an ozyhydrogen fiame. If the tempera-
ture within the furnace does not exceed 1000"* C, the pyrometer
may be left permanently inside ; for higher temperatures, which
would cause the iron pipe to soften and to bum away too rapidly,
the pyrometer should oe taken out and introduced merely for
taking an observation, which maybe done ten minutes afterwards.
Even then it is best to provide a fire-clay slab on which the
instrument can rest. Le Chatelier's pyrometer may be employed
for temperatures up to 1500'' C. For higher temperatures, up to
2100^ W. C. Herseus (Hanau, Germanjr)ha8 constructed a tnermo-
couple, consisting of a wire of pure indium, fused to another wire
of an alloy of 90 parts iridium + 10 ruthenium.

For such high temperatures Wanner's pyrometer Is now fre-
quently used. It allows a photometric comparison of the polarised
light from a small electic lamp with that of the furnace, etc., to
be tested, by means of an instrument like a telescope ; it is easy
to handle, and is serviceable for approximately measuring tempera-
tures above 1500° C, where Le Chatelier's pyrometer cannot be
employed. It is also more convenient than the latter for estimat-
ing temperatures inside the furnace at some distance from the
front of the furnaces. (Supplied by Townson & Mercer, London.)

D. — ^Feed-Water for Steam-Boilers^ etc.

1. Hardness. — ^The English degrees of hardness are based on
the unit of 1 part CaCOo. or its equivalent of MgCOs, ui 70,000
parts of water (grains to tne gallon). The French degrees signify
each 1 part CaCOs (or MgCOa) in 100,000 water, the German
degrees that of 1 part CaO (or MgO) in 100,000 water.

The testing for hardness was formerly mostlv effected by
Clark's soap test. The methods to be described here are botn
simpler and more accurate than the soap test.

(a) Temporary Hardness (alkalinity} is that which is removed
by prolonged boiling, by which operation nearly all the CaCOa
and some of the MgCOs is precipitated. This can be estimated
wilJi sufficient approximation b^r testing the water alkalimetricaHy,
employing ]; normal hydrochloric acid and methyl orange as indi-
cator, at the ordinary temperature, imtil the first reddish tint
appears. When employing 200 c.c. of the water for this test, the
number of c.c. of ^ normal acid used, multiplied by 3*5, indicates
the English degrees of temporary hardness (for French degrees
multiply by 5, for German degrees by 2*8).

"Wnere feed- water, purified by means of sodium carbonate, ia

FUEL AND FURNACES 107

tested in this way, an error may be caused by the presence of an
excess of Na2C03, which makes the hardness appear too high. In
such cases the 200 c.c. of water employed should be boiled in a
porcelain dish for some time, the precipitated carbonates removed
by filtration, and the filtrate titrated as above. The add then
used corresponds to the Na2^03 and a little unprecipitated MgCOs,
(h) Total Hardness. — ^Add to 200 c.c. of the feed- water hydro-
chloric acid in slight excess^ boil down to about 50 cc: wash this
into a 100 cc. flask, neutralise exactly with caustic soda solution,
employing methyl orange as indicator ; add 20 cc. of a mixture oi
eqiial volumes of ^ normal caustic soda solution and } normal
sodium carbonate solution, boil, allow to cool, fill up the flask to
the 100 cc mark with distilled water, pour througn a dry filter,
and estimate the unsaturated alkali in 50 cc. of the filtrate by
i normal hydrochloric add and methyl orange. Multiply the cc
of acid used by 2, and deduct this from 20; the remainder =< a
shows the alkali consumed for precipitating the alkaline earths
contained in 200 cc. of water. The total hardness is hence, =3*5a
in English degrees, 5a in French, 2*8a in German degrees. This
process is accurate also, in presence of magnesia. By deducting
the degrees of alkalinity found in a from the total hardness found
in by the permam^nt hardness is obtained — i,e,, that which is caused
by calcium sulphate.

Water havmg a total hardness of less than 8° GSnglish) is
considered as soft, from 8** to 15'' as moderately hard, aoove 15 as
hard,

(c) Residue on EvaporaMon. — ^In the case of water containing
but httle MgO, a convenient check for the total hardness — 1>.,
the sum of alkalinity a and permanent hardness h — is afforded
by evaporating 500 cc down to dryness, heating to decompose
the organic matter, moistening with a solution of COo in distilled
water, and drying at 110° C. Since the degrees of hardness are
all calculated for CaO. the value of c will not be quite equal to
a +6, if any consideraole quantity of magnesia is present, and
this indirectly proves the presence of more magnesia than usual.

2. Estimation of the Reagents (lim£ water amd sodium carbonate)
required for Purifying Water. — Add to 500 cc of the water 10
c.c. of a ^ normal sodium carbonate solution, evaporate to dry-
ness, take up the residue with a small quantity of water, filter
through a small filter, wash till there is no further alkaline
reaction, and estimate the unconsumed sodium carbonate in the
filtrate plus washings by titratinc^ with methyl orange and \ normal
hydrochloric acid. If a cc of \ normal sodium carbonate are
used in the titration, then 2a x 0*0106 shows the grams of pure
sodium carbonate required for removing the calcium sulphate~t.e.
Xk^ perma/nent hardness.

The amount of lime water required for removing the temporary
hardness is estinaated as follows ;— To 500 cc of water add 100

108 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

c.c. of clear lime water^ after haying previously determined its
percentage of CaO by titrating with | normal hydrochloric acid
and phenolphthalein ([methyl orange is not applicable in this case,
because this would indicate also the CaCOa, present in small

auantities along with Ca(0H)2, which would be wrong). Heat
iie mixture during half an hour in a covered flask (to keep out
CO2), allow to cool, pour through a dry filter, and titrate, without
delay, 500 c.c. of the filtrate. The HCl now used, increased by
one-fifth (since the original 500 c.c. of water had been brought to
600 c.c), shows the quantity of lime not used up. By deducting
this from the CaO originally contained in 100 c.c. of the lime
water, the quantity of CaO required for destroying the temporary
hardness of ^ litre of the water to be tested, is ascertained.

n. SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE.

A. — Brimstone.

1. Moisture. — ^This should be estimated by drying an average
sample of 100 g. at 70° for a few hours, in an oven or water-bath.
The sample must be prepared without losing. any moisture during
the operation ; the brimstone for this purpose must, therefore, not
be ground, but only coarsely crushed, as quickly as possible.

2. Bituminaus Substances (Fresenius). — ^Remove the sulphur
by heating the sample for some time a little over 200** C, taJdng
care ih&t it does not take fire, weigh the residue, and deauct the
ash found in No. 3.

3. Ash, — Bum 10 g. in a porcelain dish and weigh the residue.
Some samples of brimstone contain carbonaceous matter. In
this case (which is easily recognised by the appearance of the
sample) the flame must be removed immediately after the sulphur
has been burned, and before the carbon has taken fire, so that
the latter is not calculated as sulphur.

4. Arsenic. — ^Treat 10 g. brimstone with dilute li(][uorammonise
at 70** to 80** C. To dissolve the AS3S3, filter, neutralise the filtrate
exactly with dilute nitric acid, and titrate with decinormal silver
nitrate solution, until a drop gives a brown colour with a solution
of neutral potassium chromate. Each c.c. of the silver nitrate
solution indicates 0*041 per cent. AS2S3. If the arsenic should be
present as ferric or calcium arsenate (this never occurs in the case
of native brimstone, but it may do so in the case of sulphur
recovered from Leblanc soda residue), the sample must be
extracted with carbon bisulphide, the residue oxidised by aqua
regia, and the sulphur estimated as in pyrites (see below).

5. Direct Estimation of Svlphur (Macagno, Chem. News^ v.,
43, p. 192).— Fifty g. of the finely ground brimstone are dia-

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

109

solved in 200 c.c. carbon bisulphide by digesting in a stoppered
bottle at the ordinary temperature, and the specific gravity of the
liqtiid=« is estimated. This must be reduced to the specific
gravity at 15" C.=S, by means of the formula (valid up to 25" C.)
S, = « + O'OOl 4 {t - 15°). The following table gives, for each value of
S, the percentage in this solution, which number must be multi-
plied by 4 to indicate the percentage of sulphur in the sample of
brimstone :—

Specific Gravities of Solutions of Sulphur in

Carbon Bisulphide.

Spec.

X

Spec.

%

Spec.

i

%

Spec.

%

Si)ec.

1

Grav.

id

Grav.

8

Grav.

S

Grav.

S

Grav.

S

1-271

1-296

6-0

1-321

12-1

1-346

1
18-1 1

1-871

25-6

1-272

0-2

1-297

6-8

1-822

12-3

1-847

18-4

1-872

26-0

1-273

0-4

1-298

6-5

1-828

12-6

1*848

18-6

1-878

26-6

1-274

0-6

1-299

6-7

1-824

12-8

1-849

18-9

1-374

26-9

1-275

0-9

1-300

7-0

1-825

18-1

1-360

19-0

1-875

27-4

1-270

1-2

1-801

7-2

1-826

18-8

1-351

19-8 '

1-876

28-1

1-277

1-4

1-802

7-6

1-827

13-6

1862

19-6

1-377

28-5

1-278

1-6

1-808

7-8

1-828

13-8

1-868

19-9

1-378

29-0

1-279

1-9

1-804

8-0

1-329

14-0

1-354

20-1

1-879

29-7

1-280

2-1

1-805

8-2

1-380

14-2

1-856

20-4 1

1-880

80-2

1-281

2-4

1-806

8-6

1-881

14-5

1-856

20-6

1-381

30-8 .

1-282

2-6

1-807

8-7

1-83?

14-7

1-357

210

1-882

81-4

1-288

l}-9 .

1-808

8-9

1-888

16-0

1-868

21-2

1-388

81-9

1-284

8-1

1-809

9-2

1-884

15-2

1-859

21-5

1-884

82 6

1-285

8-4

1-810

9-4

1-886

15-4

1-360

21-8

1-385

38-2

1*286

8-6

1-811

9-7

1-880

15-6

1-361

22-1

1-386

38-8

1-287

8-9

1-812

9-9

1-887

15-9

1-862

22-8

1-387

84-5

1-288

4-1

1-313

10-2

1-388

16-1

1-363

22-7

1-888

35-2

1-289

4-4

1-814

10-4

1-339

16-4

1-364

280

1-889

86-1

1-290

4-6

1-815

10-6

1-840

16-6

1-365

28-2

1-890

86-7

1-291

4-8

1-816

10-9

1-841

16-9

1-866

28-6 1

1-391

37-2

1-292

5-0

1-817

11-1

1-342

171

1-367

24

rated)

1-298

5-8

1-818

11-8

1-848

17-4

1-368

24-8

(satu]

1-294

6-6

1-819

11-6

1-844

17-6

1-869

24-8

1-295

5-8

1-820

11-8

1-345

17-9

1-370

25-1.

6. Sdenium is found by fusing a sample with potassium nitrate,
dissolving the mass in hydrochloric acid, and treating with sulphur
dioxide, which precipitates the selenium.

7. The degree ofjm&ness of ground brimstone is estimated in
France by means of Chancel's sulphurimeter, i,e, a glass tube,
closed at one end, provided with a glass stopper at the other, and
graduated in 100 parts. In this, the ground brimstone is shaken
up for some time with pure, anhydrous ether, and after allowing
the tube to rest in a vertical position, the number of divisions
occupied by the brimstone is read off (degrees Chancel).

B. — Spent Oxide of Gas-works. See " Coal Gas/'

110 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

C— Pyrites.

1. Moisture, — The gix)uiid pyrites is dried at 105' C. till the
weight remains constant. For the following tests the pyrites is
not employed in the dried state, but the finely ground average
sample, kept in a well-sealed bottle. Compare the Appendix as
to taking and reducing an average sample.

The analytical results are calculated for dry pyrites, for which
purpose a special estimation of moisture is made with tne average
sample.

2. Std2?hw\ — About 0*5 g. of pyrites is treated with about 10
c.c. of a mixture of 3 vols, nitric acid (specific gravity 1*4) and 1
vol. strong hydrochloric acid, both ascertained to be absolutely
free from sulphuric acid, due care being taken to avoid all spurt-
ing. Quite exceptionally, the separation of a little free sulphur
will be observed : if this takes place, the sulphur must be oxidised
by adding a little potassium chlorate. Evaporate to dryness on
a water-bath, add 5 c.c. hydrochloric acid, evaporate once more
(no nitrous fumes ought to escape now), add 1 c.c. concentrated
hydrochloric acid and 100 c.c. hot water, filter through a small
filter, and wash with hot water. The insoluble residue may be
dried, ignited, and weighed. It may contain, besides silicic acid
and sihcates, the sulphates of. barium, lead, and even calcium,
the sulphur of which, as being useless, is purposeljr neglected.
The filtrate and washings are saturated with ammoQia, avoiding
much excess and keeping the liquid hot for about ten or fifteen
minutes before filtration, but not boiling, till all the ammonia
is expelled (in which case the precipitate contains some basic
sulphate). The precipitated ferric hydroxide is filtered and
washed. This can be done in from halt to one hour, by employ-
ing the following precautions : (1) Filter hot, and wash on the
filter with hot water, avoiding channels in the mass, but so that
the whole precipitate is thoroughly churned up with the water
each time (washing by decantation would produce too great a
bulk of liquid) ; (2) employ sufficiently dense but rapid filtering
paper ; (3) use funnels, made at an angle of exactly 60°, whose
tuoe is not too wide, and is completely filled by the liquid running
through. A filter pump may also be employed, witn the usual
precautions. Wash till about 1 c.c. of the washings, on adding
BaCl2 shows no opalescence, even after a few minutes. (If there
is any doubt on this point, the comjjlete absence of basic sul-

E hates should be investigated by drying the precipitated ferric
ydroxide, fusing it with pure sodium carbonate, and testing the
aqueous solution of the melt for sulphates.)

The filtrate and washings should not appreciably exceed 300
CO., or else should be concentrated by evaporation. Acidulate
with pure hydrochloric acid in very slight excess, preferably by
adding acid till methyl orange is just reddened, and then adding

SULPHUttIC ACID MANUFACTURE 111

just 1 c.c. of strong HCl. Then heat to bdiling, remove the
burner, and add a solution of BaCL previously heated to boiling.
A large excess of BaCl2 must be decidedly avoided. For 0*5 g.
pyrites, 20 c.c. of a 10 per cent, solution of ^Cl2 is always more
than sufficient. This is roughly measured off in a test-tube, pro-
vided with a mark, and heated in the same tube ; it is tnen
poured into the hot liquid all at once, not drop by drop. It is true
that this procedure will cause a little barium chloride to be carried
down along with the sulphate, but the error caused by this just
compensates the opposite error, caused by the slight solubility of
barium sulphate m the hot solution, containing free HCl and
ammonium chloride.

After precipitation the liquid is left to stand for half an hour,
when the precipitate should be completely settled. It is quite
unnecessary to wait for a longer time, as is sometimes prescribed ;
this is not merely a waste of time, but it unnecessarily retards the
work by the cooling of the liquid. Decant the clear portion as
carefuUy as possible through a filter, pour 100 c.c. boiling water
on the precipitate, and stir up. Wait two or three minutes, when
the liquid ought to have settled completely, and decant again.
Repeat the treatment with boiling water, and the decantation,
three or four times, till the liquid ceases to give an acid reaction.
Wash the precipitate on to the filter, dry, and ignite. It should
be a perfectly white and loose powder. One part of it is equal to
0*13733 sulphur (factors on p. 14).

3. Copj)€r. — The method employed at the Duisburg Copper
Works, in its most recent form, is as follows : — Of the powdered
pyrites, dried at lOO** C, 5 g. is gradually dissolved in 60 c.c. of
nitric acid, spec. grav. 1*2, in a flask placed in a slanting position.
When the first violent reaction is over, the flask is heated and the
evaporation continued until thick, white fumes of sulphuric acid
escape. Dissolve the dry residue in 50 c.c. hydrochloric acid, spec,
grav. 1*19, add 2 g. sodium hypophosphite, dissolved in 5 c.c.
water, for the purpose of removing the arsenic and reducing the
ferric chloride, bou for some time, then add an excess of concen-
trated hvdrochloric acid, diluted with about 300 c.c. hot water,
pass hydrogen sulphide into the liquid^ separate the precipitate
from the liquid by filtration, and wash it well. Pierce the filter
paper with a glass rod. wash the precipitate back into the precipi-
tating flask, dissolve tne sulphides adhering to the filter and the
principal portion of the precipitate by means of nitric acid, and
evaporate the contents of the flask to drvness on the water-oath.
Treat the residue with nitric acid and water, neutralise with
ammonia, and add sulphuric add in slight excess. After the
liquid has cooled down, separate the clear liquid from the insoluble
lead sulphate, etc., wash out the flask, and filter with water con-
taining a little sulphuric acid, add to the filtrate 3 to 8 c.c. nitric
acid, spec. grav. 1'4, and precipitate the copper electrolytically.

112 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

From the ascertained percentage of copper deduct 0*01 per cent,
for bismuth and antimony.

4. Lead remains in the residue from the treatment with aqua
regia (No. 2) or nitric acid (No. 3), as lead sulphate. This is
extracted from the residue (preferably that from the nitric acid
treatment) by heating with a concentrated solution of ammonium
acetate. The solution is evaporated, with addition of a little
pure sulphuric acid, the evaporation completed in a porcelain
crucible, and the residue dried and ignited. One part FbS04
=0*6829 Pb.

b. Zinc is sometimes estimated in pyrites, because the sulphur
combined with it is hardly recoveraole in the pyrites burners.
The following method ^communicated to the author by Messrs
Hassreidter and Frost) snould be employed in this case, m lieu of
Schaffher's method described subsequently for zinc blende, because
in the case of pyrites the presence of iron renders gravimetric
preferable to volumetric analysis : — Dissolve 1 g. pyrites in aqua
regia, as described on p. 110, expel the nitric acid, take up the
residue with about 5 c.c. concentrated nitric acid, dilute with water,
treat the acid solution with HgS in order to precipitate lead, etc.,
filter, expel the H2S from the filtrate by boiling, and oxidise the
liquid with aqua regia. When cooled down, ada ammonium car-
bonate, until the precipitate formed redissolves, but slowly, then
add ammonium acetate, boil for a short time, and filter the liquid
from the precipitated basic ferric sulphate. As this contains a
little zinc, dissmve it in hydrochloric add, precipitate it again as
above, and repeat this treatment until no more zinc is found in
the filtrate. The united filtrates are concentrated byevaporation.
Then precipitate the zinc in the hot solution by H2S, allow to
stand for twenty-four hours, pour off the dear liquid, filter, wash
the ZnS, dissolve it (without removing the filter) in dilute HCl,
boil off the H2S, precipitate with sodium carbonate, wash the
ZnCOa, dry and ignite it. One part ZnO=0'8034 Zn. For very
accurate work the Si02, FcgOa, and Al^Os retained in the ZnO
should be estimated and deducted, but this is very rarely necessary.

6. I'he Carbonates (of Ca, etc.) are sometimes estimated m
pyrites, because they convert a certain quantity of sulphur into
sulphate. Since their quantity is always small, the ^ CO2 is
estimated directly by expelling with strong a^ids, and is easily
estimated gravimetrically by absorbing it with soda-lime, etc..
or, more accurately and quickly, by the volumetrical process of
Lunge and Kittener, whicn will be described in connection with
the analysis of carbonated soda liquors.

7. Arsenic, — Reich's method, modified by M*Cay : — Decompose
0*5 g. pyrites with concentrated nitric acid in a porcelain crucible,
remove the free acid by evaporation, but not to complete dryness,
add 4 g. sodium carbonate, heat on the sand-bath until the mass
is quite dry, add 4 g. potassium nitrate, and heat until the mass

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE 11*

has fused quietly for ten minutes. After cooling, wash it with
hot water, acidulate the filtered solution with a little nitric acid,
heat for some time till all 00^ is expelled, add silver nitrate,
and neutralise carefully with dilute ammonia. The precipitate
f onned contains all the arsenic as Aff3As04. Dissolve it in dilute
nitric add, and either estimate the silver volumetrically by
ammonium thiocyanate ^Volhard's method), or evaporate the
solution in a porcelain dish, dry, and weign the residue. One
part Ag3As04= 0*1621 As, or 1 part Ag=0*2316 As.

D. — Burnt Pyrites (Cinders).

\, Svlphur, — Mix exactly 2 g. sodium bicarbonate of known
alkalimemc value, in a nickel crucible of 20 or 30 c.c. capacity,
intimately with 3'200 g. of ground cinders^ by means of a glass rod
iiattened at the end. Heat the crucible with a small gas-flame, the
point of which reaches just to the bottom of the crucible, for ten
minutes. Stir the mass up again, heat it for fifteen minutes with
a stronger flame, but not to the fusing point. During die heating
the crucible should be covered, and no stirring should take place
during this time, to prevent the escaping CO^ from carrying away
any dust. Empty the contents of the crucible into a porcelain
dish, wash it out with water, add a concentrated somtion of
sodium chloride, free from magnesium chloride and perfectly
neutral (without this addition it is difficult to avoid some ferric
oxide passing through the filter later on), boil for ten minutes,
filter, wash the insoluble residue till there is no alkaline reaction,
allow the filtrate, etc., to cool down, and titrate it with methyl
orange and normal hydrochloric acid (1 c.c. =0*05305 NaoCOs,
indicating 0*01603 S). If we call the number of c.c. of the
acid required by 2 g. bicarbonate = a, and the c.c. of acid
used for titrating =6, the percentage of sulphur in the cinders

corresponds to — ^-»

2. Copper is estimated as in fresh pyrites (p. Ill), but the
solution of 1 g. of the sample is effected by hydrochloric acid with
only a few drops of nitric acid, and no deduction for Bi and Sb
is made from tne electrolyticaUy estimated Cu.

3. Iron, — Dissolve 0*6 cinders in concentrated hydrochloric
acid by prolonged heating ; reduce the boiling solution by zinc,
free from iron, .or more conveniently by stannous chloride, the
excess of the latter being removed by a little mercuric chloride
solution; pour the solution thus obtained into a half -litre of
water, to which about 2 g. manganous sulphate has been added,
and which has been just reddened by one or two drops of potas-
sium permanganate. Determine the iron by titrating with deci-
normal potassium permanganate, each c.c. of which indicates
000559 g., or in 0*5 g. cinders 1*118 per cent. Fe.

H

114 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

E. — Zinc Blende.

1. Total AS'wZpAwr.— Decompose 0*5 of the finely ground sample
with pure fummg nitric acid, cooling the beaker until the £rst
violent reaction is over, and add hydrochloric add, drop by drop,
gently heatinjB^, until the decomposition is finished. Remove the
iron by precipitation with ammonia, as in the case of pyrites
(p. 112), and precipitate the sulphate by adding the requisite
quanti^ of a dilute hot solution of barium chloiide, all at once, in
which case the BaS04 remaining in solution is just compensated
by the BaOl2 carried down with the precipitate (compare p. 111).

2. Zinc, — The following modification of Schaflftier's method is
now employed at the Rhenish and Belgian zinc works, as com-
municated to the author by Messrs Hassreidter and Prost: — Treat
2'5 g. of the finely ground blende (dried at lOO** C.) in a 250 c.c.
Erlenmeyer flask with 12 c.c. fuming nitric acid, first without
heating, then heating gently until no more red vapours come off.
Add 20 to 26 c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid, evajjorate to
dryness on a sand-bath, dissolve in 5 c.c. hydrochloric acid and a
little water, heat for some time, add 50 or 60 c.c. water, and heat to
60 or TO** C. until everything except gangue and sulphur has
passed into solution. Pass a moderate current of H2S into the
solution, and gradually add, with continuous stirring, 50 to 100
c.c. water, until all Pb and Cd have been precipitated. This will
be recognised by the fact that the bubbles of gas evolved are
transparent. Any excessive dilution or too much prolonged
treatment with HgS must be avoided. Filter and wash with
100 c.c. sulphuretted hydrogen water, to which 6 c.c. hydrochloric
acid has been added^ until a drop of the filtrate gives no reaction
for zinc with ammonium sulphide. Boil the filtrate and washings
(together about 300 c.c.) in order to expel the H2S (test wiOi
lead paper), and oxidise the ferrous salt by adding 5 c.c. concen-
trated nitric acid and 10 c.c. hydrochloric acid. When partially
cooled down, put the solution into a half -litre flask, add 100 c.c.
liquor ammomae (specific gravity 0*9 to 0*91) and 10 c.c. of a cold
saturated solution of ammonium carbonate, shake well and allow
to cool. This solution we call A.

In the meantime an ammoniacal zinc solution of known
strength, the "titre," is prepared by dissolving a quantity of
chemically pure zinc, approximately equal to l£at contained in
the ore, m another hali-litre flask, in 5 c.c. nitric acid -f- 20 c.c.
hydrodiloric acid, adding 250 c.c. water, 100 c.c. liquor ammoniae,
and 10 c.c. of ammonium carbonate solution, shaking up and
allowing to stand till cool. (If mangaiiese be present, add 10 c.c.
hydrogen peroxide before adding the liquor ammoniae.) This solu-
tion we call B. When all is cool, fill both flasks up to the mark,
and fllter the solution A (made from the ore) through a dry pleated
filter. For the titration itself take from each of the solutions A

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE 116

and B 100 cc, ran this into stout glass cylinders ("batteiry
glasses") and dilute each with 200 c.c. water. The titration is
effected with a concentrated solution of commercial crystallised
sodium sulphide, diluted with ten or twenty times its volume of
water and mdicating per c.c. 0*005 to O'OIO g. Zn. This solution is
placed in two 60 c.c. burettes, standing side by side, and is run by
turns into the zinc solutions A and B. At first 2 or 3 c.c. less
than is ultimately required is run in. Agitate the solutions and
place at the same time a drop of each, by means of a thin glass
rod, on to a strip of sensitive lead paper. After the action has
lasted fifteen or twenty seconds, blow away the drops by means of
a small wash-bottle and continue the addition of Na^S, until both
drops, after acting for the same time, produce a slight but distinct
brownish colour of the same intensi^. If too much liquid has
been used in these drop tests, the titration must be repeated
once or twice ; at all events, the final reaction must take place
equally in both glasses, and the readings must be accurate to
0'05 C.C.

If we caU the quantity of pjure zinc weighed out as " titre "
a, that of the c.c. sodium sulphide solution used for the *' titre "
6, and the c.c. used for 100 c.c. of the ore solution (=0*5 g. ore)

c, the expression -v — gives the percentage of zinc in the ore-

For exact estimations, a quantity of ferric chloride, equal to
the content of iron in Uie ore, is added to the " titre," in order to
meet the objection that the ferric hydroxide may carry down a
little zinc.

Some blendes, containing a large proportion of silicates, obstin-
ately resist the ordinary methods of testmg (Jensch, ZscKf, angew.
Chem,, 1894, p. 155).

3. Lead, — The sulphides precipated in No. 2 are, if necessary,
digested with a concentrated solution of sodium sulphide ; then
dilute, filter, wash the residue, dissolve it (together with the filter)
in dilute nitric acid, filter, add an excess of sulphuric acid,
evaporate to dryness, and weigh the lead as sulphate. One part
PbSO* =0*6829 Pb.

4. Lime and Magnesia are estimated, because they form
sulphates in the roasting process. Digest 2 to 5 g. blende with
50 c.c. dilute sulphuric acid (1 : 10), with application of heat,
decant the clear portion ; repeat this treatment once or twice,
wash the residue, expel the H^S from the filtrates by boiling,
oxidise with bromine water, precipitate with ammonium carbonate,
and in the filtrate precipitate first the calcium by ammonium
oxalate (weigh this as CfaO after strongly igniting), and in the
filtrate from this the magnesium by ammonium phosphate (com-
pare pp. 146 and 147).

5. Arsenic is estimated as described on p. 112.

6. Carbon Dioxide may be estimated as m pyrites, p. 112. This

116 THE tECMNlCAL CUeMISTS' HANbftOOK

is of interest, even when CaO and MgO are estimated, since blende
contains sometimes ferrous and zinc carbonate.

7. AvaUahle Sulphur. — From the total sulphur .found in Na 1
(p. 114) deduct :

For each part of Pb found in No. 3, 0*1550 part

CaO „ „ 4, 0-5715 „
MgO „ „ 4, 0-7944 „

The remainder indicates the sulphur available for the manufac-
ture of sulphuric acid. The S of BaS04, etc., remains in the
residue from the dissolving process.

F.— Cinders Arom Blende.

1. Sulphur (according to Lunge and Stierlin, Zsch, /. angeto,
Chem,^ 1906, p. 26). — The process is carried out as described for
pyrites cinders on p. 1 13. but 2 g. ground potassium chlorate is
added to the mixture. The bottom of the crucible should finally
be at a red heat, but the contents should merely frit together,
not fuse entirely. The crucible must be covered during the heat-
ing, and its contents must not be stirred up. The calculation is

as on p. 113— that is, the percentage of S= o *

An addition of potassium chlorate is already rejiuired in the
case of cinders from iron pyrites containing much zinc. In case
the cinders contain upwards of 6 per cent. S, the mixture should
be : 1*603 g. cinders, 2*000 NaHCOa, 4*0 KClOg, 2-3 ferric oxide
(free from S). The percentage of sulphur is then = a-6, where
a is the c.c. of normal acid corresponding to the 2*000 bicarbonate,
b the c.c. of acid required for titration after the heating.

This process is also applicable to fresh (unroasted) blende, by
using the following mixture : 0*3206 g. blende, 2*000 NaHCOa,
2 KCIO3, 2 FeA ; percentage of S = 5 (a - 6).

A crude test is made by the foreman at the works, in this
manner : he heats a sample of the cinders with 10 c.c. hjrdro-
chloric acid (1 : 2 water) in a flask, holding in its nec^ a strip of
paper soaked in a neutral or faintly alkaline solution of lead
acetate, and he judges of tJie more or less complete state of roast-
ing by the depth of lie brown colour developed on the paper.

2. Zinc, as on p. 112.

G.— Gases.

1. Hunter Gase8,~(a) SO2 is estimated by Reich's method.
The gas is aspirated through a solution of iodine, contained in a
wide-necked 200 c.c. bottle, and coloured blue by starch solution,
tiU the colour is just discharged. This bottle is connected with a
larger bottle, fitted as an aspirator by having a tap near the

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

117

bottom, or by a siphon with a pinchcock. Water is run from
this into a graduated 250 c.c. jar. The iodine bottle is shaken up
during the aspirating, and at the moment when the colour is
discharged, the tap oi the aspirator is closed and the volume of
water in the jar is read off. It is equal to the volume of the
water run out, increased by that of the SO^ absorbed. The absorb-
ing bottle is charged with 10 c.c. of a decinormaJ solution of
iodine ^12'697 g. iodine per litre, preparation and viduation in the
Appenoix), along with ctbout 50 c.c. of water, a little starch solu-
tion, and a little sodium bicarbonate. The above quantity of
iodine is = 0'032 g. SOj = 10*93 c.c. at 0** C. and a pressure oi 760
mm. The latter figure, multiplied by 100 and divided by 10'93
c.c. -h the volume of the water run out, yields the percentage of
.SOoin the gas by volume.

This calculation is saved by the following table, in which the
10*93 c.c. are taken into account.

c.c. Water in the
Measuring Jar.

80-1

84-1

88-4

93-2

98-4
104-1
110-6
117-7

Per eent. BOg
by Volume.

12-0
11-6
11-0
10-5
10-0

9-6

9-0

8-5

cc. Water in the
Measuring Jar.

126-7
134-8
145-2
157-2

171-2
187-8
207-8

Per cent. BO2
by Volume.

8-0

7-5

7-0

6-5

6-0

5-5

5-0

In this no notice is taken of temperature and barometer. If
these are to be observed, the volume read off is reduced to 0"* and
760 mm. by the Tables 20 and 21, and then looked up in the above
table.

(6) Since Reich's test takes no account of the SO3 always
present in burner ^ses, it is preferable to estimate the total
adds j^SOa-hSOs), either along with the test (a) or exclusively.
This is performed in the same apparatus, but the absorbing-
bottle is preferably provided with a gas entrance tube, closed at
the bottom and perforated by numerous pin-holes, through which
the ^as issues m small bubbles. The gas is passed through a
solution of decinormal sodium hydroxide, coloured by phenol-
phthalein, until the colour is just discharged. The calculation is
made as for pure SO2, employing the table given in (a) (Lunge,
Zsch.f, cmgew, Chem,. 1890, p. 563).

In both cases — (a; and (0)— an error is sometimes caused by
arsenious oxide collecting in the aspirating tube ; this is avoided
by filtering the gases through asbestos.

2. Chamber Gases, — These are analysed like No. 3.

3. Chamber Exit Gases, — (a) Ow^ew— Before estimating this,
the adds are removed from the gas oy washing with a solution 01
potassium or sodium hydroxide. Single samiues can be taken at

118 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

odd times during the day, but it is recommended to take an
average sample for the whole day^ by aspirating at least 10 or 20
litres of gas, and analysing a portion of this. The estimation of
oxygen is best made by moist phosphorus in an Orsat apparatus
(p. 97) with two absorbing tubes, one of which is filled with
potassium hydroxide solution for removing the acids, the other
with small pieces of phosphorus. The manipulation is exactly as
in testing flue gases, out it should be observed that the tempera-
ture must be at least 16'', better 18° C, otherwise the tube must be
warmed a little.

(b) Stdphur and Nil/rogen Acids, — The different acid com-
pounds of sulphur and nitrogen are estimated together, whatever
their degree of oxidation. The following methods agree in the
main wim those published by the British Alkali Makers' Associa-
tion in 1878, but are improved in some analytical details. A con-
tinuous test over twenty-four hours is taken of the gases escaping
from the exit pipes of tne Gay-Lussac towers, aspirating at least
one cubic foot per hour by means of any aspirator acting at a
constant rate and recording the volume of gas=V by means of
gauging the aspirator or by a gas meter. The volume V is reduced
to 0" C. and 760 mm. pressure (=32** F. and 29*92 inches*) by the
Tables 20 and 21 , and is called V^ In order to allow comparisons,
the number of cubic feet of chamber space per pound of sulphur
burnt and passing into the chambers is recorded, excluding towers,
but includmg tunnels^ the amount of sulphur being taken by llie
weekly average, each firm to state the distance of the testing hole
from the point at which the gases leave the Gay-Lussac towers.
The absorption apparatus consists of four bottles or tubes, con-
taining not less tnen 100 c.c. of absorbing liquid each, with a
depth of at least 3 iii. in each bottle, the aperture of inlet tubes
not to exceed ^ in. in diameter, and to be ineasured by a standard
wire. The first three bottles each contain 100 c.c. of normal
caustic soda solution (3r05 g. per litre), the fourth 100 c.c. dis-
tilled water. The caustic soda used must be free from nitrogen
acids. The gases are tested (1) for total acidity, stated in grains
of SO3 per cubic foot of gas, or in grams per cubic metre:
(2) sulphur acids: (3) nitrogen acids, both stated in grains of
S and N per cuoic foot (or grams per cubic metre). The
analvsis is carried out as follows : — Tne contents of the four
bottles are united, taking care not to unnecessarily augment the
bulk of the liquids, and are divided into three equal parts, one of
which is reserved for accidents, etc. The first part is titrated
with normal sulphuric acid (49*04 g. SO4H2 P©r litre), to ascertain
total acidity. The number of cubic centimetres of acid necessary

* The law prescribes the cubic feet to be measured at 60° F. and 80 inches, which
necessitates the use of other tables or factors than those mentioned in the text, but
the difibrence is hardly perceptible, and certainly within the limits of exxwrimental
error.

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE 119

for neutraliflation is called rr. The second jMtrt of the liquid is
gradually poured into a warm solution of potassium permanganate,
strongly acidified with pure sulphuric acid. A small excess oi
permanganate must be present, and must be afterwards reduced b^
the addition of a few drops of sulphurous acid solution, until
only a faint red tint is visible. Now all nitrogen acids are present
as &NO3, but no excess of SO2. The HNO3 is estimated by its
action on FeSOi. Twenty-five c.c. of a solution, containing per
litre 100 g. crystallised ferrous sulphate and 100 c.c. i)ure sulpQuiic
add (the same solution which is used for estimating Mn02, p.
154) are put into a flask, 20 c.c. to 25 c.c. pure concentmted
sulphuric acid is added, the mixture is allowea to cool, and the
other mixture, treated with permanganate, etc., is added. The
flask is closed by a cork with glass tubes. A current of COg
passes through and issues beneam the surface of some water, to
prevent entrance of air. First, all the air is expelled in this way
by means of an apparatus giving a constant current of CO* ;
then the solutions are introduced, and the contents of the flask
are heated to boiling, till the dark colour produced by the forma-
tion of NO has changed to a clear light yellow. This takes from
a quarter of an hour to one hour, according to the quantity of
NO3H present and that of the sulphuric acid added. The
unoxidised ferrous sulphate is titrated by a seminormal perman-
ganate solution (yielding 0*004 g. oxygen per cubic centmietre —
compare Appenaix). Tne cubic centimetres used =.V; Since the
titre of the iron solution changes somewhat quickly, it should be
tested daily by taking out 25 c.c. witJb the same pipette as is used
for the above operation, and ascertaining the amount of perman-
ganate required for oxidising it =2; c.c. The data required arc
found by the following equations : —

1. Total Addity in grams per 1. Total Acidity in grains per

cubic metre = cable foot =

en _ 0-120(100 -a?) en _ 1 '852 ( 100 - a?)

2. Sulphur in grams per cubic 2. Sulphur in grains per cubic

metre = foot ^

_ 0*008 (600 -6 J? -z+y) ^, _ -12346 ( 600 - 6a? -g+y )

~ yi ' ^ — yi

S. Nitrogen in grams per cubic 8. Nitrogen in grains per cubic

metre = foot —

^__ 0-007 (2-y) v,_ 0-10803(z-y)

IN — yi IN - yi

The legal limit for total acidity in the lead-chamber process
is 4 grains of SO3 per cubic foot, before admixture with air,
smoke or other gases ; for the contact process, the " best practi-
cable means " are to be adopted.*

• Alkali Act, 1906,

120 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

For the purposes of the Alkali Act, it is sufficient, in lieu of the
above process, to estimate total aridity only by the test described on
p. 118, employing decinormal soda solution and phenolphthaleiQ.

(c) Mtric Oxide (NO) may be present in the exit gases after
passing through the absorbing bottles. If it is to be estimated,
an absorption tube (Fig. 8)* is interposed between the tubes of
the apparatus described above and the aspirator. This tube con-

Fio. 8.

tains 30 c.c. of seminormal permanganate and 1 c.c. of sulphuric
acid, specific gravity 1*25. The gas is passed through for twenty-
four hours, and the tube then emptied and washed out. Now add
50 C.C. ferrous sulphate solution, corresponding to 2 2 perman-
ganate ([compare last paragraph), and retitrate the decolorised
uauid with permanganate. The quantity of the latter now used is
called u. The NO has consumed (30+w— 22) c.c. permanganate,
which is equal —

In grams of nitrogen per oubio In grains of nitrogen per cubic

metre of the volume Vi. foot.

^ _ 0-007 (SO + u-2z) _ 0^0803 (30 + ««- 22)

H. — Sulphuric Acid.

1. Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity tables of sulphuric
acid refer of course to ckemiccUty pure acid. Since, in the case of
hi^h-grade acids, the impurities always present in commercial adds
quite sensibly increase the specific gravity, the table in the case
of acids over 90 per cent. H2SO4 should only be employed for the
private use of the works, but sales shotdd always be effected on the
wms of a real analysis, as described later on under No. 8, p. 136.

The following table is based on that which the author
formerly worked out from a series of very careful investigations,
carried on with Isler and Naef ; some corrections introduced by
the Imperial German Standards Commission are incorporated.

It should be noted that the highest percentages show lower
specific gravities than those just below, the maximum being at
99'35 per cent. H2SO4.

■* This shape of balb*tubes has been found to be far superior to any other foxta of
absorption-tubes tried.

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

121

I. a:

PJDOIFXC

7 ORAVIT7 OF SUIiPj

BU9I0 A

OID

AT 00'*

F.

Specific
Gravity.

Degrees
Twsddell.

100 parts by weight
contain

Kilo per
litre.

1 Cubic Foot of Acid
60" P.

8O3.

H2^04.

Weighs
lbs. avoir.

Contains
lbs. avoir.

H^4.

1-200

40

22-30

27-32

0*328

74*82

20*44

1-205

41

22-82

27-95

0*337

76-14

21-00

1-210

42

23-33

28-58

0*346

76*45

21*67

1-215

43

23-84

29-21

0*365

75-76

22-14

1-220

44

24*36

29*84

0-864

76-07

22*71

1-225

46

24*88

30*48

0-873

76-38

28-28

1-280

46

25*39

81-11

0*382

76-69

28-85

1-235

47

26-88

81-70

0*891

77-00

24-41

1-240

48

26-35

32*28

0-400

77-32

24-97

1-245

49

26*88

32*86

0-409

77-63

26-64

1-260

50

27-29

83*43

0-418

77-94

26-10

1-265

61

27-76

34-00

0-426

78-25

26-66

1-260

52

28-22

34-57

0-435

78-56

27-23

1-265

53

28-69

86-14

0-444

78-87

27-79

1-270

54-

29-15

8571

0-454

79-19

28-35

1-275

56

29-62

36-29

0-462

79-60

28-92

1-280

56

30-10

86-87

0-472

79*81

29-48

1-286

57

30-57

37*45

0-481

80*12

30-04

1-290

58

31-04

38-03

0-490

80*43

30*60

1-295

69

31-62

38-61

0-500

80*74

81*17

1-300

60

31-99

39*19

0-510

81-06

31*74

1-305

61

32*46

39-77

0-519

81-37

82*82

\\ 1-310

62

32-94

40-85

0*529

81-68

82-89

1-815

63

33-41

40-98

0*638

81*99

88-46

1-320

64

33-88

41-50

0*548

82*30

34*03

1-325

66

34-36

42-08

0*567

82*62

84-60

1-330

66

34-80

42-66

0*567

82*98

35*18

1-335

67

36-27

43-20

0*577

83*24

85-79

1-340

68

85-71

43-74

0-586

83-56

86-40

1-345

69

36-14

44-28

0*696

83-86

87-01

1-860

70

36-58

44-82

0*606

84-17

87-68

122 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

SPJDOIFIO ORAVIT7 OP SXTIil

•HURIO

AOID— Cfl

mhnusd.

Specific
Gravity.

1

Degrees
Twaddell.

]00 parts
con

by ireight
Uin

Ha804.

Kilo per
litn.

1 Cabic Foot of Add
60" F.

1
1

8O3.

Weighs
lbs. avoir.

OontaiDS
lbs. avoir.

1-355

71

37-02

46-86

0-614

84-49

38-24

1-860

72

37-46

46-88

0-624

84-80

38-85

1-365

73

87-89

46-41

0-638

86-11

89-46

1-370

74

88-82

46-94

0-648

86-42

40-07

1-376

76

88-75

47-47

0-663

86-73

40-68

1-380

76

39-18

48-00

0-662

86-04

41-29

1-386

77

39-62

48-63

0-672

86-36

41-91

1-390

78

40-06

49-06

0-682

86-67

42-62

1-396

79

40-48

49-59

0-692

86-98

48-13

1-400

80

40-91

60-11

0-702

87-29

43-74

1-405

81

41-38

60-68

0-711

87-60

44-86

1-410

82

41-76

61-16

0-721

87-92

44-97

1-415

83

42-17

61-66

0-730

88-23

45-68

1-420

84

42-67

62-15

0-740

88-64

46-18

1-425

85

42-96

52-63

0-760

88-85

46-78

1-430

86

43-36

53-11

0-769

89-16

47-38

1-435

87

43-76

53-59

0-769

89-47

47-99

1-440

88

44-14

54-07

0-779

89-79

48-59

1-445

89

44-53

64-66

0-789

90-10

49-19

1-450

90

44-92

55-03

0-798

90-41

49-79

1-455

91

45-31

66-60

0-808

90-72

50-39

1-460

92

46*69

55-97

0-817

91-03

50-99

1-465

93

46-07

56-43

0-827

91-35

51-69

1-470

94

46-46

66-90

0-837

91-66

62-19

1-475

95

46-83

57-37

0-846

91-97

62-79

1-480

96

47-21

57-83

0-856

92-28

63-39

1-485

97

47-57

58-28

0-866

92-59

64-00

1-490

98

47-95

68-74

0-876

92-90

64-60

1-495

99

48-34

59-22

0-886

93-22

65-20

1-600

100

48-78

59-70

0-896

93-53

65-84

1-505

101

49-12

60-18

0-906

93-84

66-47

1-510

102

49-61

60-65

0-916

94-15

57-10

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

123

SPBOIFIC ORAVnrr of SinU^HURIC AOW— Continued.

Specific
Gravity.

Degrees
Twaddell.

100 parts by weight
contain

Kilo per
litre.

Hs^4.

1 Cubic Foot of Acid
60- P.

8O3.

H«^4.

Weighs
lbs. avoir.

Contains

lbs. avoir.

H20O4.

1-515

103

49-89

61-12

0-926

94-46

67-73

1-520

104

50-28

61-59

0-936

94-77

68-36

1-525

106

50-66

62-06

0-946

95-09

69-00

1-530

106

51-04

62-53

0-957

96-40

69-62

1-536

107

61-43

68-00

0-967

95-71

60-26

1-540

108

51-78

63-43

0-977

96-02

60-89

1-545

109

52-12

63-85

0-987

96-83

61-62

1-550

110

62-46

64-26

0-996

96-65

62-16

1-555

111

62-79

64-67

1-006

96-96

62-78

1-560

112

63-22

65-20

1-017

97-27

68-49

1-665

lis

68-59

66-66

1-027

97-68

64-10

1-570

114

63-95

66-09

1-088

97-89

64-79

1-575

115

64-82

66-63

1-048

98-20

65-42

1-580

116

54-65

66-95

1-058

98-62

66-04

1-685

117

66-03

67-40

1-068

98-83

66-67

1-590

118

55-37

67*83

1-078

99-14

67-77

1-595

119

66-73

68-26

1-089

99-45

67-96

1-600

120

56-09

68-70

1-099

99-76

68*60

1-605

121

66-44

69-13

1-110

100-07

69-29

1-610

122

56-79

69-56

1-120

100-39

69-92

1-616

123

57-16

70-00

1-181

100-70

70-60

1-620

124

57-49

70-42

1-141

101-01

71-20

1-625

125

67-84

70-85

1-151

101-32

71-85

1-630

126

68-18

71-27

1-162

101-64

72-64

1-685

127

68 -53

71-70

1-172

101-95

73-16

1-640

128

68-88

72-12

1-182

102-26

73-79

1-646

129

69-22

72-65

1-198

102-57

74-47

1-650

130

69-57

72-96

1-204

102-88

75-16

1-656

131

59-92

73-40

1-215

103-19

75-84

1-660

132

60-26

73-81

1-226

103-60

76-47

1-666

133

60-60

74-24

1-236

103-82

77-16

124 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

SPBOZnO O&AVITT' OF SUZiPHURIO AOlD^CotUmu$d.

Speeiflc
Gravity.

DegntB
Twaddell.

100 ptrts by weight
contain

Kilo per
Utre.

H£S04.

1 CuUc Foot of Acid
60' P.

SOs.

H^04.

Weighs
lbs. avoir.

Oontains
lbs. avoir.

1-670
1-675

134
135

60-95
61-29

74-66
75-08

1-246
1-259

104-13
104-44

77-78
78-59

1-680
1-685
1-690
1-695
1-700

136
137
138
139
140

61-63
61-93
62-29
62-64
63-00

75-50
76-86
76-80
76-73
77-17

1-268
1-278
1-289
1-301
1*312

104-75
105-07
105-88
105-69
106-00

79-16
80-12

80-81
81-51
82-21

1-705
1-710
1-715
1-720
1-725

141
142
143
144
145

63-85
68-70
64-07
64-43
64-78

77-60
78-04
78-48
78-92
79-36

1-323
1-834
1-346
1-857
1-369

106-31
106-62
106-94
107-26
107-56

82-90
88-60
84-29
84*99
85-69

1-780
1-785
1-740
1-745
1-750

146
147
148
149
150

65-14
65-50
65-86
66-22
66-58

79-80
80-24
80-68
81-12
81-56

1-881
1-392
1-404
1-416
1-427

107-87
108-18
108-49
108-80
109-12

86-38
87-08
87*77
88*47
89*17

1-755
1-760
1-765
1-770
1-775

151
152
153
154
155

66-94
67-30
67-76
68-17
68-60

82-00
82-44
88-01
83-41
84-02

1-439
1-451
1-465
1-478
1-491

109*43
109-74
110-05
110-36
110-68

89-86
90*56
91*45
92*26
93*07

1-780
1-785
1-790
1-795
1-800

156
157
158
159
160

68-98
69-47
69*96
70-45
70-96

84-50
85-10
86-70
86-80
86-92

1-504
1-519
1-534
1-549
1-565

110-99
111-30
111-61
111-92
112-28

93*81
94*74
96-67
96-60
97-69

1-805
1-810
1-815

161
162
163

71-50
72-08
72-69

87-60
88*30
89-05

1-581
1-598
1-621

112-67
112-98
113-29

98-69

99*75

101*19

SUL^HDRIC AClD XiANUFACTUftE

m

BFBOr

no ORi

LVITY OP SULPHORIO AOID— Oa

ntinusd*

1

1

specific
Gravity.

1

Degrees
TwBddeU.

100 parts by weight
contain

Kilo per
litre.

H2^904.

1 Cable Foot of Acid
WF.

SO3.

H.i804.

Weighs
lbs. avoir.

Contains
Iba. avoir.

1-820

164

73-51

90-05

1-689

113-61

102-31

1-821

• • •

73-63

90-20

1-648

113-67

102-56

: 1-822

• • •

73-80

90-40

1-647

113-73

102-89

1 1-823

73-96

90-60

1-651

113-80

103-06

1-824

74-12

90-80

1-656

118-85

103-38

1-825

165 ' 74-29

91-00

1-661

113-92

103-68 1

' 1-826 1 ... 74-49

91-25

1-666

113-99

104-00 1

1-827 [ ... 74-69

91-50

1-671

114-04

104-81 .

1-828 1 ... 74-86

91-70

1-676

114-11

104-62 j

1-829

1
1

1 75-03

91-90

1-681

114-19

104-93 1

1

1-830

166 75-19

92-10

1-685

114-23

105-18 1

! 1-831

• • •

75-46

92-43

1-692

114-80

105-62

1-832

• • •

75-69

92-70

1-698

114-36

105-99

' 1-833 1 ...

75-89

92-97

1-704

114-42

106-38

1 1 -834

1

• • •

76-12

93-25

1-710

114-47

106-74

1-835

167

76-35

93-56

1-717

114-54

107-48 i

1-836

• • •

76-57

93-80

1-722

114-61

107-49 ;

1-837

• • •

76-90

94-20

1-730

114-67

107-99

1-838

• ••

77-23

94-60

1-739

114-73

108-55 !

1-839

• • •

77-55

95-00

1-748

114-80

109-12

1-840

168

78-04

95-60

1-759

114-86

1
109-80

1 -8405

• • •

78-33

95-95

1-765

114-89

110-18

1-8410

• • •

78-69

96-30

1-784

114-92

110-73

1-8415

• « •

79-47

97-85

1-792

114-95

111-86

1 -8410

• • •

80-16

98-20

1-808

114-92

112-86 1

1-8405

• • ■

80-43

98-52

1-814

114-89

113-23

1-8400

• • •

80-59

98-72

1-816

l]4-8b

113-36

1 -8395

• • •

80-63

98-77

1-817

114-83

113-48

1 -8390

• • •

80-93

99-12

1-823

114-80

113-80

1-8885 ... 1 81-08

1 i

99-31

1-826

114-76

113-98

]

126 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

a TABZiB FOB RBDUOINO THB SPBOIFZO ORAVmiBS OF
SUIiPHTTBIO AOID OF VARIOUS STRHNGTHS TO ANT
OTHBR TBKPBRATURB (DBORBBS C).

0'.

857
847
887
827
817

807
797
786
776
765

754
744
784
724

714

704

61)4
684
674
664

654
644
684
624
614

604
594
584
574
568

552
542
582
522
512

502
492
482
472
462

452
442
482
422

412

402
892
382
872
862

b\

10*.

15*.

20'.

25'.

80%

85-.

40'.

45'.

60'.

•852
•841
•881
•821
•811

•801
•791
•781
•770
•760

•760
•740
•780
•720
•710

•700
•690
•680
■070
•660

■650
•640
•680
•620
•610

•600
•589
•579
•569
■558

■548
■588
•528
•618
•608

•498
•488
•478
•468
•458

•448
•488
•428
•418
•408

■898
•888
•878
•868
•858

1^846
1^886
1-825
1-815
1^806

1^796

■786
•776
•766

1755

•746
•785
•725
•716
•705

•696
•085
•675
■666
•655

•645
•685
•625
•616
•605

1-696
1^684
1674
1^664
1^564

1644
1-684
1^624
1^614
1^504

1-494
1^484
1^474
1^464
1^454

1^444
1484
1^424
1-414
1^404

1-894
1-884
1^874
1-864
1-864

840
880
820
810
800

790
780
770
760
750

740
780
720
710
700

690
680
670
660
650

640
680
620
610
600

590
580
570
560
550

640
580
520
510
500

490
480
470
460
450

440
480
420
410
400

890
880
870
860
850

'885
•825
•815
•805
•794

•784
•774
•766
•756
•746

•785
'726
•715
•705
•695

•686
•676
-666
'655
•645

•085
•625
•616
•605
•696

•585
•576
■566
•556
•546

•586
•526
•516
•506
'496

•486
•476
•466
'466
'446

-436
'426
'416
'406
896

886
■876
•866
'866
'846

1^880
1^820
1^809
1^799
1^788

1^778
1^76S
1^759
1^749
1^740

1^780
1-720
1-710
1-700
1-690

1-680
1^670
1-660
1650
1*640

1*631
1-621
1^611
1^601
1-591

1-681
1^670
1^561
1652
1^542

1^582
1^522
1-612
1-602
1-492

•482
•472
•462
•452
•442

1^432
1^422
1-418
1-408
1-893

1888
1-878
1-868
1'868
1^848

825
816
804
798
788

778
763
754
744
785

726
716
706
696
686

676
666
666
646
686

626
616
606
696
586

676
566
556
647
588

528

518
508
498
488

478
468
458
448
488

429
419
410
399
389

879
870
860
850
840

1-821

1^816

l^Sll

1^810

1^805

1-800

1-799

1^794

1*789

1-788

1^788

1*778

1^777

1772

1-766

1^767

1^762

1*756

1^757

1^752

1-746

1*748

1748

1-787

1-788

1^788

1*728

1^780

r725

1-720

1-721

1^716

1-711

1-711

1-706

1-701

1-701

1-696

1-691

1-691

1-686

1-681

1-681

1-676

1-671

1-671

1-666

1-661

1-661

1-666

1-651

1651

1^646

1-641

1*641

1^686

1-682

1-682

1^627

1^622

1*622

1^617

1^612

1*612

1-607

1-602

1*602

1-697

1^692

1*592

1-687

1^682

1*582

1-577

1^672

1^572

1-567

1^662

1^562

1-568

1-558

1^562

1-648

1-548

1^548

1-589

1584

1-684

]&80

1-525

1^524

1-520

1^516

1^614

1^610

1-506

1^504

1-600

1^497

*

1^494

1-490

1^486

1^484

1480

1-476

1^474

1^470

1-466

1-465

1^461

1-457

1'455

1^451

1-447

1^445

1^442

1-488

1486

1^482

1-429

P426

1-423

1-420

1^416

1-413

1-409

X

1-406

1-402

1-898

1-896

1-892

1-888

1-386

1-382

1-878

1-872

1-872

1-868

X

1-862

1-862

1-859

^

1-852

1^352

1-849

A

1^844

1*844

1^840

<l

1^884

1^884

1-880

•806
•796
•784
•778
-761

•761
•741
•782
•728
•715

•706
•696
•686
•67C
-667

•666
•646
•6S7
•628
•618

•608
•698
•588
•578
•568

•558
•648
•539
•580
•521

•512
•502
•492
•482
•472

-462
-458
•448
-484
•425

•416
•405

•394
•8S4
•874

•864
•865
•346
-886
826

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

12?

TABZjB 2 — CofUinuecL

55%

60%

66%

70".

76%

80%

86%

90%

95%

100%

1-801

1*796

1-792

1-787

1-782

1-778

1-774

1-770

1-766

1*762

1-790

1-787

1*781

1-776

1-770

1-766

1-762

1-767

1-752

1*748

1*779

1-774

1*769

1-764

1-759

1-754

1-749

1*744

1-789

1-784

1-767

1*762

1-757

1-752

1-747

1-741

1-786

1-781

1-726

1-721

1-766

1-760

1*744

1-789

1-784

1-729

1-724

1-719

1-714

1-708

1-746

1-741

1-785

1-780

1-725

1-720

1-715

1-710

1-706

1-700

1-786

1-781

1-726

1-721

1-716

1*712

1-707

1-702

1-697

1-692

1-727

1-722

1*717

1-712

1-707

1-702

1-697

1-693

1-688

1-688

1-718

1-718

1-708

1-708

1-698

1-698

1-688

1-684

1*679

1-074

1-710

1-705

1-700

1-695

1-699

1-685

1-681

1-676

1-671

1-607

1-702

1-697

1-692

1-688

1-688

1-678

1-674

1-669

1-664

1-060

1-602

1-687

1-688

1-678

1-678

1-668

1-664

1-659

1-664

1-050

1-682

1-677

1-678

1-668

1-668

1-659

1-654

1-649

1-644

1-640

1-672

1-667

1*668

1-668

1-658

1-649

1*644

1-689

1-685

1-680

1-662

1-667

1-658

1*648

1-644

1-689

1-684

1-680

1-625

1-620

1-662

1-647

1-642

1*688

1-684

1-680

1-625

1-620

1-015

1-610

1-642

1-687

1-682

1-628

1-624

1-620

1-615

1-611

1-606

1-002

1-68S

1*628

1-628

1-619

1-615

1-611

1-606

1-002

1-597

1-593

1-623

1*619

1*614

1-610

1-606

1-602

1-597

1-598

1-588

1-584

1-614

1-610

1-605

1-000

1-596

1-692

1-588

1-588

1-679

1-575

1-604

1-600

1-595

1-591

1-586

1-582

1-578

1-574

1-570

1-565

1-694

1-590

1-686

1-581

1-577

1-578

1-569

1-565

1-561

1-556

1-584

1-580

1-576

1-672

1-668

1-564

1-660

1-556

1-652

1-547

1-674

1-570

1-566

1-562

1-558

1-554

1-550

1-546

1-542

1-587

1-664

1-560

1-566

1-562

1-648

1-544

1-540

1-586

1-581

1-527

1-664

1-550

1-545

1-641

1-687

1-583

1-529

1-526

1-521

1-510

1*644

1-589

1-686

1-681

1-527

1*628

1*519

1*616

1-510

1-500

1-685

1*581

1-526

1-522

1-518

1-518

1-509

1-506

1-501

1-496

1-526

1-522

1-517

1-518

1-509

1-504

1-500

1*496

1-492

1-487

1-517

1-518

1-509

1-604

1-500

1-495

1-491

1-487

1-488

1-478

1*608

1-504

1-500

1-495

1-491

1-486

1-482

1-478

1-478

1-409

1-498

1-494

1*490

1-485

1-481

1*476

1-472

1-468

1-463

1-459

1-488

1-484

1*480

1-476

1-472

1-467

1-462

1*468

1-453

1-449

1*478

1-474

1470

1-466

1-462

1-467

1-452

1-448

1-443

1-438

1-468

1-464

1-460

1-456

1-451

1-446

1-442

1-488

1-488

1-428

1-458

1*454

1-450

1-442

1-441

1-487

1-488

1-429

1-424

1-419

1*449

1-445

1-441

1-486

1*482

1*428

1-424

1-419

1-414

1-410

1-489

1*486

1*481

1-427

1-428

1-418

1-414

1-409

1-405

1-401

1-480

1-426

1-422

1-418

1-418

1-409

1-405

1-400

1-896

1-392

1-421

1*417

1-418

1-409

1-404

1-400

1-396

1-391

1-387

1-383

1-412

1-407

1-408

1-899

1-895

1-891

1-386

1-382

1-878

1-874

1-401

1-897

1-898

1*889

1-885

1-880

1-876

1-872

1-368

1-364

1-890

1-886

1-882

1-878

1-874

1-370

1-866

1*362

1-368

1-853

1*380

1-876

1*872

1-868

1-864

1-860

1-856

1-352

1*348

1-343

1-870

1-866

1*862

1-868

1-854

1-850

1-346

1-842

1-338

1-388

1*860

1-856

1-852

1-848

• •

• •

• ■

• •

« •

1*861

1-846

1-842

1-888

m •

, ,

• •

1-842

1-887

1-884

1-829

, ,

• •

■ •

1*882

1-827

1-828

1-819

• •

• •

• «

• ■

1-322

1-817

1-814

1-810

• •

* ■

• •

• •

■ •

128 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

•FABUi Z—Oontimud.

0\

6'.

10%

16%

20%

26°.

30°.

85°.

40%

45%

60%

1-862

1-848

1-844

1-840

1-886

1-888

1-880

1-327

1-824

1-820

1-816

1-841

1-887

1-888

1-880

1-827

1-824

1-821

1-318

1-814

1-810

1-806

1-880

1-826

1-828

1-820

1-817

1-814

1-811

1-308

1-804

1-301

l-2y7

1-820

1-816

1-818

1-810

1-807

1-804

1-801

1-298

1-294

1-291

1-287

1-810

1-806

1-808

1-800

1-297

1-294

1-201

1-288

1-284

1-281

1-277 ;

1-800

1-296

1-298

1-290

1-287

1-284

1-280

1-277

1-274

1-270

1-267

1-290

1-286

1-288

1-280

1-277

1-274

1-270

1-267

1-264

1-260

1-256

1-280

1-276

1-278

1-270

1-267

1-264

1-260

1-287

1-264

1-250

1-246

1-270

1-266

1-268

1-260

1-267

1-264

1-261

1-248

1-246

1-241

1-287

1-260

1-266

1-268

1-260

1-247

1-244

1-241

1-288

1-236

1-231

1-227 1

1-250

1-246

1-248

1-240

1-287

1*234

1-280

1-227

1-224

1-220

1-217

1-240

1-286

1-288

1-230

1-227

1-224

1-220

1-217

1-214

1-210

1-207

1-280

1-226

1-228

1-220

1-217

1-214

1-210

1-207

1-204

1-200

1-197

1-220

1-216

1-218

1-210

1-206

1-204

1-200

1-197

1-194

1-190

1-1S7 !

1-210

1-206

1-208

1-200

1-196

1-198

1-190

1-186

1-188

1-180

1-176

1-200

1-196

1-198

1-190

1-186

1-188

1-180

1-176

1-173

1-169

1-165 ;

1-190

1-186

1-188

1-180

1-176

1-178

1-170

1-166

1-163

1-169

1-155 1

1-180

1-176

1-178

1-170

1-166

1-168

1160

1-166

1-168

1-149

1-146

1169

1-166

1-168

1-160

1-167

1-163

1-160

1-147

1-144

1-141

1-138

1-169

1-166

1-158

1-150

1-147

1-148

1-140

1-187

1-134

1-131

1-12S

1-149

1-146

1-148

1-140

1-187

1-184

1-181

1-128

1-125

1-122

1-119

1188

1-185

1-188

1-180

1-127

1-126

1-122

1-119

1-116

1«118

1-110

1128

1-125

1-128

1-120

1-118

1-116

1-112

1-110

1-107

1-104

1-102

1-118

1-115

1118

1-110

1-108

1-106

1-102

1-100

1-097

1-094

1-092

1-108

1-105

1108

1-100

1-097

1-094

1-092

1-000

1-087

1-084

1-082

1-098

1-095

1098

1-090

1-087

1-084

1-082

1-080

1-077

1-074

1-072

1-088

1-085.

1088

1-080

1-077

1-074

1-072

1-070

1-067

1-064

1-062

1-078

1-075

1-078

1-070

1-067

1-064

1-062

1-060

1-067

1-064

1-052

1-068

1-066

1-068

1-060

1-057

1-064

1-052

1-050

1-048

1-044

1-042

1-058

1-055

1058

1-050

1-947

1-044

1042

1-040

1-088

1-034

1-082

1-048

1-045

1048

1-040

1087

1-034

1-032

1-030

1-028

1-024

1-022

1-088

1-085

1-083

1-080

1-027

1-024

1-022

1-020

1-018

1-014

1-012

1-028

1-025

1-028

1-020

1-017

1-014

1-012

1-010

1-008

1-004

1-002

1-018

1-016

1-018

1-010

1-007

1-004

1-002

1-000

0-998

0-994

0-992

SULPHUtUC AaD MAKUf ACTURfi

129

TABIiH 8— OoirfANMci.

55'.

60*.

66°.

70'.

76%

80'.

86%

90\

96%

106'.

1-812

1-908

1-804

1*800

1-802

1-208

1-294

1*290

• •

■ ■ • • • •

1-298

1*289

1*284

1*280

■ •

1
• • • • • •

1-288

1-279

1*274

1-270

• •

• • • • • •

1-278

1-269

1*266

1-260

• •

• • • • ■ •

1-208

1-259

1-266

1'260

« *

.. ' .. 1 ..

1-262

1-248

1-244

1*940

• •

1
• •

1-242

1-288

1-284

1-280

• • • •

1

1-288

1-224

1*224

1-220

• • • •

.. 1 ..

1-228

1-214

1-214

1-210

• •

1

1-210

1-209

1-204

1-200

• ■

1

1-204

1-900

1*196

1*100

• • • •

. . • .

1-194

1-190

1*186

1-180

• . 1 « • 1

1-188

1-179

1*176

1*170

1

1-172

1*168

1*164

1*160

.. 1 .. 1

1-162

1*168

1*164

1*160

« • 1 • •

■ »

1-162

1*148

1*144

1-140

• • 1 • •

• •

1-148

1-189

1*186

1-181

• • ■ •

• •

1-186

1-181

1*127

1*128

• ■ • • ! • •

1-125

1*122

1-118

1-114

• ..

• •

• •

1-116

1*118

1-109

1-106

• •

1-107

1*104

1-100

1-097

• ■ • •

1-009

1*096

1*092

1*088

1-089

1-086

1*082

1*078

1-079

1*076

1*072

1*068

1-069

1*065

1*062

1-068

1-059

1*056

1-062

1-048

1-049

1*045

1*042

1-088

1-086

1-086

1*082

1-028

• • ■ •

1-089

1*025

1-022

1*018

.. 1 ..

1-019

1*015

1-012

1-008

• •

1-009

1-005

1*002

0*906

• •

0-999

0-995

0-992

0-988

• ■

0-989

0*985

0*982

0*978

• •

1

130 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

a SPBCIFIC ORAVinilS OF OOMMBROIAIj (NORDHAUSEK)

OIL OF VITRIOL.

(Messel, Joum, 8oc, Chenu Ind.,, 1885, p. 573.)

Spocimeiui.

Liquid

Crystalline mass, resembiiDg nitre .

Do. do.

Do. da

• • ■

Liquid

Do! ! ! ! ! . .

Crystallised

Do.

Do. . . . . .

Peircentage
ofSO|.

8-8
80*0
40-0
44*6
46*2
59*4
60*8
65*0
69*4
72-8
80-0
82*0

Spocific Gravity

At 80° P.
« 26*6' 0.

842
980
956
961
963
980
992
992
2-002
1-984
1*959
1-953

Ateo'F.

=:16-6*C.

1*862
1*940
1*970
1*975
1*977
1*994
2*006
2*006
2*016
1-988
1*973
1-967

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

181

4. SPBOIFIO ORAVimS AND PBBOBHTAaB OF FUHINa
(NORDKAUSBN) OH. OF VITKIOL AT OIFFHBBIIT

1

Denrrity at

I
BO, j

Per Cent.

16%

20-.

26%

80%

86*.

' 1-8417

1-8371

1 -8323

1-8287

1-8240

76-67

1 1-8427

1-8378

1-8333

1-8295

1-8249

77-49

' 1-8428

1-8888

1-8351

1-8802

1-8255

78-34

1-8437

; 1*8390

1*8346

1-8800

1-8257

79-04

1-8427

1 -8386

1-8351

1-8297

1-8250

79-99

1-8420

1-8372

1-8326

1-8281

1-8234

80-46

1-8398

1-8850

1-8305

1-8263

1-8218

80-94

1-8446

1-8400

1-8853

1-8307

1-8262

81-37

1-8509

1-8466

1-8418

1-8371

1-8324

81-91

1-8571

1-8522

1-8476

1-8432

1*8385

82-17

1-8697

1-8647

1-8595

1-8545

1-8498

82-94

1-8790

1-8742

1-8687

1-8640

1-8592

83-25

1-8875

1-8823

1-8767

1-8713

1*8661

83-84

1-8942

1-8888

1-8833

1-8775

1*8722

84-12

1-8990

1-8940

1-8890

1-8830

1-8772

84-33

1-9034

1 -8984

1-8930

1-8874

1-8820

84-67

1-9072

1-9021

1-8950

1*8900

1-8845

84-82

1-9095

1-9042

1-8986

1-8982

1-8866

84*99

1-9121

1-9053

1-8993

1 -8948

1-8892

85*14

1-9250

1-9193

1-9135

1-9082

1-9023

85*54

1-9290

1-9236

1-9183

1-9129

1-9073

85-68

1-9368

1 -9310

1-9250

1-9187

1-9122

85-88

1-9447

1-9392

1-9334

1 -9279

1-9222

86-61

1-9520

1-9465

1-9402

1 -9338

1-9278

86-72

1-9584

1-9528

1-9466

1-9406

1 -9340

87-03

1-9632

1-9573

1-9518

1 -9457

1-9398

87-46

cryst

cryst

1 -9740

1-9666

1-9740

88-00

The above table is only intended for control in works, but not for
commercial purposes, because the specific gravity is anything but
a certain guide for the percentage of Nordhausen acid, and altogether
fails as such, for strengths just below the monohydrate. The table
Was not made for chemically pure acids, but for commercial acid.

132 TH£ TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

6. FRBBZINO AND MBLTOrQ POINTS OF
STTLPHXTRIO ACID.*

8p«c1fic Gnvity at 16\ '

Freezing Point.

Melting Point.

1-671

Liquid at - 20"

1

• • •

1-691

Liquid at - 20**

■ • •

1-712

Liquid at -20"

• ••

1-727

-7-5''

-7-5"

1-732

-S'b"

-8-5"

1-749

-0-2"

+ 4-5"

1-767

+ 1-6"

+ 6-5"

1-778

+ 8-5"

+ 8-5"

1-790

+ 4-6"

+ 8-0"

1-807

-9-0"

-6-0"

1-822

Liquid at -20"

■ ••

1-840

Liquid at - 20"

• • •

1
(
1

* Lunge, BeriekU d. deuUeh. ehem, Ges., 1881, ■. 2649.

& BOILINQ POINTS OF SUIiPHtJBIC AOID.
(Lunge, Ber, cL d. ch«m, Oes,, 11, 370.)

Per

Gent.

804'H2«

Specific

Boiling

Per

rtent

Speoifie

Boiling

Per

Gent

904H2.

Specific

BoUiog

Gravity.

Point.

8O4H2.

Gravity.

Point.

Gravity.

Point.

l>egrees.

Degrees.

Degnes.

5

1-031

101

56

1-459

138

82

1*758

218-5

10

1-069

102

60

1-503

141-5

84

1-778

227

15

1-107

103-5

62-5

1-530

147

86

1-791

238-5

20

1-147

105

65

1-557

153-5

88

1-807

251-5

25

1-184

106-5

67-5

1-585

161

90

1-818

262-5

30

1-224

108

70

1-615

170

91

1-824

268

35

1-265

100

72

1-639

174-5

92

1-830

274-5

40

1-307

114

74

1-661

180-5

93

1-884

281-5

45

1-352

118-5

76

1-688

189

94

1-887

288-5

50

1-399

124

78

1-710

199

95

1-840

295

53

1-428

128-5

80

1-733

207

Monohydrate (100 per cent) boils at 338** (Marignac).

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

133

7. FUSINQ POINTS* OF SUIiPHURIC ACID AND OF

NORDHAUSBN OIL OF VITIlIOIi. (KNIH

T80H.)

Sulphuric Acid.

Noidhannen Oil of Vitriol.

Percentage
of SO3

Fasing
Point.

1

Percentage
ofSOa

Pugmg
Point.

Percentage of

Fusing Point.

(as H2984).

°C.

ras H5^4).

1

"C.

/reeSOj.

•

C.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

1 SO3

- 0-6

69 SO3

+ 7-0

SO.,

+ 10-0

2 „

- 1-0

70 „

+ 4-0

5 „■

+ 8-5

3 „

- 1-7

71 „

- 1-0

10 „

- 4-8

4 „

- 2-0

72 „

- 2-0

15 „

-11-2

5 „

- 2-7

73 ,,

-16-2

20 „

-ll-O

6 „

- 3-6

74 ..

-25-0

25 „

- 0-6

7 „

- 4-4

76 ..

-34-0

30 „

+ 15-2

8 M

- 5-3 , 76) «^o

- 6-0 77^??.

- 6-7 78j ^

-32-0

36 „

+ 26-0

9 „

-33-0

40 „

+ 33-8

10 „

-16-6

45 „

+ 34-8

11 „

- 7-2

79 „

- 5-2

50 „

+ 28-5

12 „

- 7-9

80 „

+ 3-0

55 „

+ 18-4

13 „

- 8-2

81 „

+ 7-0

60 „

+ 0-7

14 „

- 9-0

82 „

+ 8-2

66 „

+ 0-8

15 „

- 9-3

83 „

- 0-8

70 „

+ 9-0

16 „

- 9-8

84 „

- 9-2

75 „

+ 17-2

17 „

-11-4

85 „

-11-0

80 „

+ 22-0

18 „

-13-2

86 „

- 2-2

86 „

+ 33-0 (27) t

19 „

-15-2

87 „

+ 13-5

90 „

+ 34-0(25)

20 „

-17-1

88 „

+ 26-0

95 „

+ 86-0(26)
+ 40-0(16)

21 „

-22-5

89 „

+ 34-2

100 „

22 „

-31-0

90 „

+ 34-2

23 „

-40-1

91 „

+ 26-8

••• :: }

below

92 „

+ 14-2

-40

93 „

+ 0-8

61 „

-400

94 „

+ 4-5

62 ,,

-20-0

95 „

+ 14-8

63\ 60**
64/ B^

-11-5

96 „

+ 20-3

- 4-8

97 „

+ 29-2

65 „

- 4-2

98 „

+ 83-8

66 „

+ 1-2

99 „

+ 36-0

67 \ 62°
68/ B^

+ 8-0

100 „

+ 40-0

+ 8-0

1

* "Fusing Point*' is understood to be the temperature to which the mercury of
the thermometer, dipping into the solidifying liquid, rises and at which it remains
constant. It should be noticed that largt quantities of Nordhausen oil of vitriol,
such as exist in transportation vessels, frequently do not behave in accord with the
above data, because during the carriage and storage a separation often takes place in
the acid, crystals of a diflbient concentration being farmed, which of course possess a
correspondingly different ftislng point.

t The figures in parentheses signify the fasing points of freshly msi,de Nordhs^useu
oil of vitriol, which has not polymerised,

134 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

8. PBROBHTAOB OF 8O3 IN NORDHAU8BN OIL

OF VITRIOL.

Foand by

GonUlns per

Foand Inr

Ck>ntaln«per

Found by

Contains per

Titnting.

803.

Titrating.
8O3.

tmi

w

Titrating.
8O3.

v^vu

V*

8O3.

8O4H2.

804H2*

8O3.

SO4H2.

8O3.

81-6826

100

87*8775

66

34

93-9887

33

67

1

81*8168

99

1

88*0612

65

85

1 94-1224

32

68

82-0000

98

2

88-2448

64

86

94-3061

81

69

82-1836

97

8

88-4285

68

37

94-4897

30

70

82-8674

96

4

88-6122

62

38

94-6734

29

71

82*5510

95

5

88-7959

61

39

94*8671

28

72 '

82*7846

94

6

88-9795

60

40

95-0408

27

73

82*9188

93

7

89-1632

59

41

' 95-2244

26

74

83-1020

92

8

89*3469

58

42

95*4081

25

• • •

88*2867

91

9

89-5806

57

43

95*5918

24

• * •

83-4698

90

10

89-7142

56

44

95*7755

23

• ••

88-6580

89

11

89-8979

55

45

95*9591

22

• • •

83-8867

88

12

90-0816

54

46

96*1428

21

• • •

84*0204

87

13

90-2658

53

47

96*3265

20

• • •

84-2040

86

14

90-4489

52

48

96-5102

19

• • •

84-3877

85

15

90-6826

51

49

1 96-6938

18

• • •

84-5714

84

16

90-8163

50

50

' 96-8775

17

• • •

84-7551

88

17

91-0000

49

51

97-0612

16

• • •

84*9387

82

18

91-1886

48

52

' 97-2448

16

• ••

85-1224

81

19

91-8673

47

53

97-4285

14

••■ 1

85*3061

80

20

91-5510

46

54

97-6122

13

• ••

85-4897

79

21

91-7846

45

55

97-7959

12

•••

85-6734

78

22

91-9183

44

56

i 97*9795

11

• ••

85-8571

77

23

92-1020

48

57

' 98-1682

10

• ••

86*0408

76

24

92-2857

42

58

98*3469

9

1

86*2244

75

25

92-4098

• 41

59

98*5306

8

• •■

86-4081

74

26

92-6530

40

60

98*7142

7

• ••

86*5918

73

27

92-8867

89

61

98*8979

6

• •■

86*7755

72

28

98-0204

38

62

99*0816

6

...

86*9591

71

29

93-2040

37

63

99*2653

1

4

1

87*1428

70

80

98-3877

86

64

' 99-4489

3

' ...

87*3265

69

31

93-5714

35

65

99*6326

2

1

' •••

87*5102

68

32

98-7551

34

66

99*8168

1

... i

87*6938

67

33

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE 135

0. The QuantitAtive Ebcamination of Free

Sulphiirio Acid.

The quantitative examination of free sulpliuric acid is
made by titrating a weighed quantity. It is not sufficiently
accurate to measure the acid by a pipette, etc., especially in the
case of concentrated acid. The titration is performed by means
of standard sodium . hydroxide solution, and the results are
expressed in terms of H2SO4.

Weigh from 2 to 3.g. acid in a ^lass-tap pipette (Fig. II, p. 144),
after cleaning the latter on the outside ; run its contents into at
least 100 C.C. water, and weigh the pipette again, toithout washing
it out. This enables another pii>ette full of acia to be taken and
tested, without washing and drying the instrument, and so forth.
The same procedure is also very well adapted for slightly fuming
mixtures of sulphuric and nitnc acid, ana for Nordhausen oil of
vitriol (cf, p. 144).

The standard sodium hydroxide solution is *^ normal," i.e,, con-
taining 0*04005 NaOH g. per litre. It is controlled by means of
standard hydrochloric acid (0*03646 ^. HCl per litre), the strength
of which has been fixed by pure sodium carbonate. The method
is described in detail in the Appendix.

As indicator, methyl orange is used alwajns in the cold, and
so much only is taken that the colour produced is just visible.
Nitrous add destroys tins colouring matter, but ordinary com-
mercial acid never contains sufficient to cause any trouble, and
even *' nitrous vitriol " or fuming nitric acid can be titrated with
methyl orange, if the indicator is added (or renewed) shortly
before the laist quantity of alkali has been added; or eke an
excess of alkali is added, then methyl orange, and titrated back.
Nitrous acid behaves towards methyl orange like the strong
mineral acids : that is, the change of colour takes phice when the
compound NaN02 has been formed.

10. Bxamination of SiQphiirio Aoid for other

Substances.

(a) Ifitrom Acid ( Nitrososulphuric Acid) is titrated with
seminormal permanganate. (Preparation in the Appendix.) This
can be done witiiiout loss of NO as follows (Lunge, Berliner
Berichte. x., 1076) : — Put the nitrous vitriol into a burette fitted
with a glass tap, and run it slowly into a measured quantity of
permanganate, diluted with five times its volume of tepid water
(30** C. to 40*" C), and agitate continuously till the colour just
vanishes. Sometimes during this process a little manganese
dioxide is separated, which makes it difficult to recognise the end
of the reaction, but tins is avoided by keeping the temperature

136 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

not above 40" and bv diluting the permanganate, say to 200 c.c.
(The same method holds good for the analysis oi sodium nitrite,
but in this case the permanganate solution must be previously
acidulated to such an extent mat the NaN02 solution is immedi-
ately decomposed when run into the permanganate.) Each cubic
centimetre of the permanganate indicates 0*009502 g. NjOs, hence
more or less of it is employed, according as to whether an acid
containing more or less NjOj is titrated. For chamber acid,
employ at most 5 c.c. ; for good Gay-Lussac acid, up to 60 c.c. of
permanganate. If the quantitv of permanganate is called x^ and
that of the vitriol consumed for decolorismg it y, the quantity
of N2O3 present in grams per litre of acid is :—

Calculated as NO.H ^

as NaNOa =

9'502g

y

15-75«

y

21*2580;

The following table, p. 137, saves the calculation for all cases in
which a; =50. The column y gives the number of cubic centi-
metres of nitrous vitriol used, a the peroentcM^ in grams per
litre, and h the percentage by weight, for acid of 140" Tw. (For
other strengths the percentage by weight is calculated by dividing
the figures of column a by 10 x specific gravity.)

(b) Total Nit/rogen Adds, — ^These are contained in sulphuric
acid as N2O3, or more correctly as nitrososulphuric acid,
S02(OHXONO), and NO3H. NO can be present onlv in minute
quantity, aiid only in absence of NO^H. N2O4 is decomposed
by sulpnuric acid into nitrososulphuric and nitric acid. The
estimation made according to (fl) only indicates N2O3. The total
nitrogen acids are converted mto NO bv shaking u^) the nitrous
vitrid with mercury ; the quantity of NO formed is estimated
by volume (Crum's reaction). This is done by Lunge's mtrometei\
Fill the graduated limb a with mercury by raising the level tube
h ; put the three-wav cock so that it communicates with any of
the openings ; run the nitrous vitriol into the top cup of a from
a 1 c.c. pipette graduated in 1^7, c.c, employing only 0*5 cc of
very strong, but up to 5 c.c. of verv weak nitrous vitriol ; lower
the level tube, open the cock carefully so that the vitriol runs in
without any air entering ; x)our 2 or 3 c.c. of pure strong sulphuric
acid, free from nitrogen compounds, into the cup ; let this add
enter the nitrometer, and repeat the washing of tne cup with 1 or
2 c.c. of pure acid. Start the evolution of gas by taking the tube
a out of the clamp, inclining it several times till almost norizontal,
a^4 suddenly righting it a^in, so that mercuiy and acid are well

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

137

mixed ; shake for one or two minutes till no more gas is evolved.
Place the tubes so that the mercury in 6 is as much higher than
that in a as is required for balancing the acid in a ; this requires

TABIiE FOR BSTIMATINa NITROUS VITRIOIi.

Employ 50 c.c. of seminormal permanganate. The results are
expressed as NO3H and NOsNa. The column y refers to acid
of 140** Tw. as unit :—

Aoid
nsumed.

NO3H.

NOsNa.

Acid
nsumed.

NO3H.

NOgN*.

§

a.

b.

a.

5.

8

a.

h.

Ok

b.

y-

g. per
litre.

per

g.per

per

y.

g.per

per

g.per
litre.

per

c.c.

cent.

litre.

cent.

C.C.

litre.

cent.

cent.

10

78-75

4-61

106-29

6-22

36

21-88

1-28

29-58

1-73

11

71-59

4-19

96-63

5-65

37

21-28

1-24

28-72

1-68

12

65-63

3-84

88-58

5-18

38

20-72

1-21

27-97

1-64

13

60-58

3-54

81-76

4-78

39

20-19

1-18

27-25

1-59

14

56-25

3-29

75-92

4-44

40

19-69

1-15

26-53

1-55

15

52-60

3-07

70-86

4-14

41

19-21

1-12

25-83

1-51

16

49-22

2-88

66-43

3-88

42

18-75

1-10

25-31

1-48

17

46-32

2-71

62-62

3-65

43

18-27

1-07

24-66

1-44

18

48-75

2-56

59-05

3-45

44

17-90

1-05

24-16

1-41

19

41-45

2-42

55-95

3-27

45

17-76

1-02

23-57

1-38

20

39-38

2-30

53-15

3-11

46

17-12

1-00

23-11

1-35

21

87-50

2-19

50-61

2-96

47

16-72

0-978

22-57

1-32

22

35-80

2-09

48-32

2-83

48

16-41

0-960

22-15

1-30

23

84-24

2-00

46-21

2-70

49

16-04

0-988

21-65

1-27

24

82-81

1-92

44-28

2-59

50

15-75

0-921

21-26

1-24

25

31-50

1-84

42*62

2-49

55

14-32

0-837

19-33

1-13

26

30-29

1-77

40*88

2-39

60

13-13

0-768

17-72

1-04

27

29-17

1-71

39-37

2-80

65

12-12

0-709

16-36

0-957

28

28-13

1-65

37-97

2-22

70

11-26

0-658

15-18

0-888

29

27-16

1-59

36-66

2-14

75

10-50

0-614

14-17

0-829

30

26-25

1-54

35-43

2-07

80

9-85

0-576

13-29

0-777

31

25-40

1-49

34*28

2-00

85

9-26

0-542

12-50

0-731

32

24-61

1-44

83-22

1-94

90

8-73

0-511

11-78

0-689

38

23-86

1-40

32-20

1-88

95

8-29

0-485

11-19

0-654

34

23-16

1-35

31-26

1-83

100

7-88

0-461

10-64

0-622

35

22-50

1-32

30-37

1-78

N.B.--The ligares in column a also indicate 0*01 lb. avoirdupois per gallon, or nearly
oiinces per cubic foot.

1 mm. of Hg for 6j mm. of acid. An exact reading can only be
obtained when the gas has attained the temperature of the room
and all froth has subsided. Bead off the volume of the gas, also

138 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

a thermometer hung up close by, and the barometer. In order to
check the levelling, open the cock, when the level of a should not
change. If it rises, tne pressure has been in excess, and the read-
ing must be increased a little, say by 0*1 c.c. Ii it sinks, the
reverse is the case, i.«., always in the opposite sense to the change
of level. Another ^an is, to put a little acid into the cup before
opening the cock. This will be sucked in if the pressure was too
low, or raised if too high. With adroit manipulation iJie reading
can then soon be corrected. Finally, lower the graduated tube a,
lest any air should enter on opening the tap ; open the tap, raise
the tube 6, force the eas and all acid into me cup, and turn the
tap so that the acid flows through into a vessel held below; the
last x)ortions are drawn off by Uotting-paper. The nitrometer is
then ready for the next experiment.

A test must always be made to see whether the ^lass tap is
gas-ti^ht. It will hardly remain so without greasing it occasion-
ally with vaseline, but this ought to be done verv slightly, so as
to avoid an;^ urease getting into the bore, for if the grease comes
in contact with add, troublesome froth is formed."^

c.c. NO read off.

a.
. Absolute
weight mg.

h.
Per cent, by
weight, when em-
ploying l c.c. acid
dri40°Tw.in
the Nitrometer.

Nitrogen, Ng ....
Nitric oxide, NO .
Nitrogen trioxide, NoOg
Nitric acid, real, HNOg
Sodium nibrate, NaNOg
Potassium nitrate, KNO3 .

0-6257
1-3402
1-6975
2-8144
3-7986
4-5176

0*0866
0-0784
0-0998
0-1646
0-2221
0*2642

(Multiples of these figures are given in Table 5, p. 17.)

This process is interfered with by the presence of sulphurous
acid, the best test for which is the smeU. To remove it, the acid
is stirred up with a very small quantity of powdered potassium
permanganate. Any great excess of this acid makes the process
very troublesome and inaccurate.

in highly concentrated acids a notable quantity (up to 3 per
cent, by volume) of NO may be dissolved \ therefore a little water
must be added to such acids in the nitrometer, sufficient to reduce

* Such froth may also be formed in the presence of too much water, by the
separation of mercuric sulphate, but this hardly ever happens in the case of nitroas
vitriol, and even In the analysis of sodium nitrate only when the description given for
the estimation is not properly adhered to.

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE

139

their strength to about'90 per cent. HgSOi. The volume of NO
read off is reduced to 0° C. and 780 inm. (32° F. and 29'92 in.) by
means of the tables, page^ 3S and 44 or 50, and calculated for
the nitrogen compounds present hj the table on p. 138, in which
colamn a gives miUigrams, b per cent, by weight, when employing
1 C.C acid of 140° Tw.

Nitrometers (and gas-volumeters) should of course be obtained
from a reliable dealer, so that the correctnees of the graduations
and the tightness of the taps can be depended upon.

The redaction to 0° and 760 mm. can be effected without
thermometer and barometer, and without the use of any tables,
by means of Lunge's Gat-votiimeter, Fig. 9, which serves
also for numerous other analytical
operations. It consists of tbe gas- S

measuring tube A, the reduction
tube B, and the level tube C, all
coonected by thick mbber tubing
with the three-way tube a. B and
C are held in two arms of the same
clamp, so' as to be each either in- .
divicuially ntovable in its own arm, '
or both together ^ means of the
conunou c&mp. Tube A may be
an ordinary nitrometer with three-
way tap and funnel ; it b, however,
beat employed merely aa a gas-
meaaoring tube, and for some pur-
poses this tube is made to hold
upwards of 100 c.c, in which 'case
the upper portion is in the shape
of a bulb, the division beginning
below this, say, at 90 or 100 c.c.
The most convenient shape, which

serves both for small and largo '

quaDtities of gas, is a tube pos-
sessing a bulb in the middle, and
graduated above this from (at
the tap) to 40 c.c., below the bulb t""". »■

from 100 to 140 c.c. A two-way

tap, q, allows communication either with tiie straight outlet tube A,
or witb the light-an^Ie tube e.

Instead of corrymg out the decomposition in tube A, it is
decidedly preferable to employ for this purpose a separate tube, D,
provided with a two-way tap, /, a funnel, d^ and an exit tube, c,
corresponding to the tube e on A. D has its own level tube £.
-All these tubes are held in clamps, which can be moved up and
down on the two bars of a heavy iron stand.

The " reduction tube " B is eidarged at the top, and the narrow

UO THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

portion below is graduated from 100 to 125 c.c. in ^ c.c. It
contains a volume of dry air which at O"" and 760 mm. pressure
would occupy exactly 100 c.c. This is obtained by takmg, once
for all, a reading of the thermometer and the barometer, and
calculating what would be the Tolume of 100 ac. of dry air under
the prevailing atmospheric conditions. In reading the barometer,
a deduction must be made for the expansion of the mercury, viz.,
1 nun. between O"" and IS"*, 2 mm. between 13'' and 19°, 3 mm.
between 20° and 25% For calculating the volume of 100 c.c. air
at *' normal conditions '' from the observed temperature t and the
barometric reading 6 (corrected as aboveX we have the formula :—

y _ 100(273 + 0760
2736

A droD of concentrated sulphuric acid is previously introduced
througn the open end of b. most convenientlv by suction. After
setting the level in B to the point indicated b^ the equation, the
capillary end of 6 is sealed by fusing it up; in Gtder to prevent
the heat from expanding l^e air in 5, a cardboard shield is put
between the flame and B.

This is avoided by replacing the open capillary tube b by
Lunge's *^beaker-ta^" (J9er., 1892, p. 3157), and still better by
GockePs gas-tap with annular mercury seal (supplied by Dr
Gockel, Wilhelmstrasse, 49, Berlin, W.).

The "laboratory vessel " or "decomposition tube " D, in which
the reaction is carried out, is provided with the fittings of an
ordinary nitrometer, viz., the three-way tap /, the cup d, the
lateral outlet c, and the special level tube E. It holds about liK)
C.C., and is not graduated. Mercury is poured in through £. By
raising E, the vessel D is completely tilled with mercury, till it
begins to run out at c. The tap/ is shut, the end of c closed by
a glass or rubber cap, and the nitrous vitriol placed in d ; this is
sucked into D, then some pure acid sucked in, to wash the cup
and tap, tap/ closed (no bubbles of air must remain below it !),
and the decom|>osition brought about in the usual manner by
shaking the vitriol with the mercury, to evolve all the nitrogen
acids as NO. The tubes D and A are then brought opposite to
each other (A having been previously filled, by raising C, with
mercury till it flows out at e) ; c and e are joined by a snort piece
of rubber tubing till they touch, so that no air remains in the
space between ; C is lowered, E raised, and b^ cautiously opening
tap/, the NO contained in D is transferred mto A. As soon as
all the gas is in A, and the acid following it has filled the narrow
tube e, tap g is closed. Now tube C is raised tiU the mercury in
B has risen to the mark 100, and B and are simultaneously
moved up or down, as may be required, till the levels in A and B
coincide, that in B being still at 100 c.c. Since the air in B is

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE 141

now compressed to the point whicb it would occupy in the dry
state at 0° and 760 mm., and the gas in A is placed under exactly
the same pressure (the temperature of these two parallel tubes
being presumably the same), the reading in A gives the volume of
NO reduced to the same conditions of 0° and 760 mm. The
temperature in A and B must be exactly ^e same ; this is
enstured by tiie conductivity of the mercury, but in the case of
lainge quantities of NO it is necessary to wait at least ten minutes
before finally adjusting the levels.

If only one ^-volumeter is available, and that is ac^usted for
moist gases (as is required for other purposes), it may be used also
for dry gases, but it is then necessaiy to avoid any sulphuric acid
passing from D into A, and to suck a drop of water into A, before
trsuosferring the gas into it from D. Another way for measuring
drp gases with a moist reduction tube is as follows : observe the
temperature ; take the tension of aqueous vapour corre8X)onding
to tliis from the table, p. 54=/, and adjust the mercury in the
measuring tube A higher by/ mm. than in the reduction tube B,
where, as usual, the mercury is adjusted by means of the level
tube C to the point marking lOO'OO c.c. If, on the other hand, a
reduction tube has been prepared for dry gases, by introdudng a
drop of concentrated add, it may be usecl also for moist gases (as
in we testing of manganese ore, bleaching x)owder, potassium
permanganate, etc.), by ac^usting the mercury in A / mm. lower
than in B.

(c) Relative Proportions of ike three Nitrogen Acids, — In order
to find from the result of the permanganate titration and from the
estimation of total nitrogen in the nitrometer (as NO) the relative
proportions of N^Os, Ne04, and NO3H in a mixture of all three
nitrogen adds absorbed by sulphuric acid, we may employ the
following formula :—

o =: cc. NO found in the nitrometer.

6 = C.C. O, calculated from the permanganate titration.

(1 C.C. 0= 1*4278 mg. ; 1 cc. seminormal permanganate
=0*004 g. =2-8015 cc oxygen.)
X = vols. NO, corresponding to the N2O3 present,
y = „ NO, „ „ Na04 „

2 = „ NO, „ „ NOsH „

If 46 be > a,

ar=46-a; y = 2(a-26), or =a~x.

If 46 be < a,

.y=46; «=o-46.

(d) Qualitative Test for IVaces of Nitrogen Acids, — These can
be detected by means of diphenylamine. Dissolve a few grams

142 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

of diphenylamine in 100 parts of pure sulphuiic add. This ^ould
be completely free from mtrogen oxides, and can be made so Jf not
at band, by boiling wilii a trace of ammonium sulphate. Dilate
the add with tVth volume of water before dissolving the diphenyl-
amine. This solution may be employed at once, or kept, as it
keeps quite well. Pour about 2 cc. of the vitriol to be tested into
a test-tube, and add about 1 c.c. of the diphenylamine solution
so that the layers mix only gradually. In the case of dilute adds,
or other lighter li(]^uids, proceed in the opposite manner. The
slightest traces of mtrogen adds are provea oy the appearance of
a brilliant blue colour at the area of contact of the liquids.

The smallest traces of nitrous add are detected, even in the
presence of nitric add. by the reagent proposed by Griess. as
modified by Ilosvay ana by Lunge. This reagent is prepared by

(1) dissolving 0*5 g. sulphamlic add in 160 c.c. dilute acetic add ;

(2) boiling O'l g. solid a-naphthylamine with .20 c.c. water, pouring
the colourless liquid off from the purple residue, and mixing it
with 150 C.C. dilute acetic add. The two solutions are united,
and can thus be kept for an indefinite time in a bottle, well pro-
tected against air (which often contains traces of nitrogen acids).
Add a few c.c. of this solution to the solution to be tested, and
heat to 70"* or 80\ If as little as 1 part nitrous add be present in
1000 million parts of the Kquid. a red colour is formed in about
one minute. More concentrated solutions of HNO3, say 1 : 1000,
do not yield the blue colour, but a yellow solution.

In the presence of selenium the diphenylamine test fails, as Se
gives the same reaction as nitrogen adds. In that case test for
somewhat large quantities of nitrogen acids by the decoloration
of indigo solution ; for traces, by the reddening of a solution of
brudne sulphate.

(e) Sdemum in sulphuric acid can be recognised by adding to
the add a strong solution of ferrous sulphate, when a browmsh-
red predpitate will make its appearance, which cannot be con-
fusea with the colour product by NO, or else by the green
colour, produced in a solution of codein.

(f) tJxamination for Lead, — Dilute the acid, if concentrated,
with an equal volume of water and twice its volume of alcohol.
Allow the mixture to stand for some time, filter any j)redpitate of
FbS04, wash it with dilute alcohol, and dry and imite in a porce-
lain crucible, burning the filter separately. 1 g. rbS04= 0*68293

(g) EocamiTiationfor Iron, — Boil the acid^ if free from nitrogen,
with a drop of nitnc acid to oxidise the iron. Dilute a little,
allow to cool, and add solution of x>otassium thiocyanate. A
red colour proves the presence of iron. If there is not too little,
it can be quantitatively estimated in another sample by heating
with pure zinc (free from iron), pouring off from the zinc, washing
the latter, allowing to cool, and titrating with permanganate.

SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURE US

This is best employed as ^ih normal, indicating 0*002795 g. Fe
per cubic centimetre. Not less than 60 ac. of the acid should
be taken for this test, as it generally contains very little
iron.

The smallest traces of iron can be estimated colorimetrically
(Lunge, Zsch.jf» cmgew, Chem,^ 1896, p. 3).

Qi) Arsenic is detected qualitatively by the well-known
methods of Marsh or of Beinsch. For quantitative estimation
dilute 20 c.c. of the acid with water, and treat with a current of
SO|, until there is a strong smell of the gas. This reduces AsoOa
to AS2O3. but that requires a m^etty long time and a considerable
excess 01 SOj. Now drive on the excess by heating and passing
a current of COg, neutralise exactly with Na2C03 and a Uttle
NaHCOs, <^<^ titrate with dednormal iodine and starch. 1 cc.
of the iodine solution indicates 0*00496 g. AS2O3. (Any consider-
able proportion of iron should be previously removed.)

(i; Cfhlorides, — Boil 10 cc. of the ada in a jQa^^ pass the
vapours on to the surface of a little water, contained m a flask,
and estimate the absorbed HCl addimetrically, or after neutral-
ising with Na2C03, by titrating with decinormal silver nitrate
(p. 146).

11. Analysis of Fuming Sulphurio Aoid (Nordhausen
Oil of Vitriol) and of Sulphuric Anhydride.

The substance is either weighed in glass bulbs or in a ^lass-tap
tube. The former are veiy thm bulbs of about 2 cm. diameter,
ending on each side in a capillary tube. Melt the acid, if solid,
till it is completely homogeneous, and suck 3 g. to 6 g. into
the bulb, which ought to be halt-filled with it. The sucking
is best done by means of a bottle closed with a rubber cork,
through which passes a tightly fitting glass tap,
connected at its free end with a rubber tube.
Suction is applied to the latter, the tap
dosed, the rubber tube drawn over one of
the capillaiy ends of the weighing bulb, and by
opening the tap a sufficient quantity of add
admitted into the bulb. The tube is deaned
outside, and one of the capillary ends is sealed
off. Hie other end can be left open without
fear of any loss of SO3 or attraction of moisture

during weighing. The weighing is best done

on a small platmum crudble with two nicks, pio. 10.

on which the ends of the bulb can rest. If the
latter should be acddentally broken, the acid runs into the
crucible, not on the balance. Put the bulb, after weighing, open
end downwards into a small Erlenmeyer flask, into the neck of

^■^-y

144 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

which it on{^t to fit exactly <Fig. lOX and which contains bo
much water that tlie cajAllair tabe dips well into it, to [weveiit
any lose of SO. on mixm|g the acid with water. Break off the
other point, aliow the acid to run out, squirt a few drops of
water into the upper capiUai^, and ultiniatelf rinse the whole
bulb tube by repeated aspiration of water. Dilute the liquid to
&00 c.c and take 50 c.c for each test. This is done with l noimal
sodinm carbonate solntion (1 cc. =0 '008006 k- SO^, and methrl
orange as indicator. From tha acidity found, that due to SO,
is deducted, which is ascertained by titrating another sample
with iodine.

Lunge and Bey's glasa-tap pipette (Fig. 11)
(the tApe of which must be tight without greas-
ing !) u more convenient than the bulb tube.
Shut I^B lower tap c, open the upper tap a,
apply suction (with the mouth) at a, sJid shut a
wHUst sucking. Immerse the point « in the
add to be tested, and open c ; the partial
vacuum in bulb b suffices for drawing up
enough add, which must not be allowed to
reach the tap c. Shut c, clean the point e,
put the pipette in the outer glass vessel /, and
wdgh. Take the pipette out of /, place it
point dovmwards m water, and slowly run
out the contents. Then squirt some wat«r
from above into 6, allow to stand for a moment,
and rinse thoroughly with water.

The stronsest fuming oil of vitriol cannot
be run directly into water without loss. Such
oil <^ vitriol is weighed out in small f^.aas
bulbs. OS described above: both ends are
sealed up, the bulb is placed in a bottle con-
I te'n™g a considerable quanti^ of water, the

stopper put in, the bulb broken by shaking
the trattle, and after waiting a little the solu-
tion titrated.
Fio. 11. Solid products of this dasa must be melted

by moderate heating ; they then remain long
enough in the liquid state to complete the weighing and run-
ning out without being heated a^axa. But products which are
not far removed from real SO^ m composition would give out
too much vapour in this operation. Such prodncte are weired
out in a stoppered bottle, and mixed in this witJi a known sad
exactly ana^ed quantity of monohydtate, at a temperature
of 30" to 40° C. This ought to produce a mixture containing
about 70 per cent. SOa which will remain liquid at ordinaiy
temperatures.

If only 0'5 to 1 g. of acid has been weighed off, titrate directly.

SALTCAKE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID U6

This is more aceurate than diluting and titrating onlv part of the
liqtiid^ but the latter method cannot be avoided ^en a larger
quantity of add has been weiighed.

The acidimetric determination, of coarse, indicates the total
percentage of add. From this we must deduct in the first instance
any SO^ present. This is estimated in the usual way by deci-
normal iodine, and for each c.c. of this 0'05 c.c. nonnal sodium
carbonate solution is deducted (since with methyl orange the
colour changes when SO2 has passed into NaHSOs). ^ ^0 call
the c.c. of normal sodium carbonate used = », those of decinormal
iodine used for the same quantity of oil of vitriol » mjhe addity
due to HaSO^+SOg is = (ft.- 0*05 m) 0-04003 SO3. To the SO3
thus found add the SO2 (calculated =: 0'003203 m\ and assume
the residue to be water.* By multiplying this HgO by 4*443, we
obtain the quantity of SO3 combined with it to form H9SO4,
and by deducting this from the total SO3 addity, that of the
free SO3.

III. SALTOAKB AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID.
A. — Salt (Common Salt, Rock-Salt).

1. Moisture, — Ignite 5 g. of salt in a covered platinum crucible
(to prevent loss by spirting) ; heat first quite gradually, then for
some minutes, up to a low red heat. If the sample is too damp or
if several samples are to be tested at the same tune, weigh ofifthe
5 g. samples in flat-bottomed Erlenmeyer flasks, with funnels on,
heat a number of these on a sand-bath for three or four hours
to 140** or 150° (without funnel), and allow them to cool with the
funnel in, which saves the use of a desiccator. Afterwards the
snuJl remainder of chemically combined water may be removed
by heating on a wire-gauze, but this is mostly unnecessary.

2. IrisolyJble matter. — Dissolve 6 g., filter the insoluble matter,
wash, dry, and ignite.

3. Chlorine, — Weigh off 6'85 g. of the moist salt, dissolve it,
and dilute to 500 c.c.^ take out 25 c.c. b^ means of a pipette,
add so much of a solution of neutral potassium chromate that the
liquid is distinctly yellow, and titrate with decinormal silver
scuution (c/*. Appendix). Add the silver solution from a 50 c.c.
burette, tiU the precipitate, even aiter agitation, shows a distinct
but faint pink colour. 0*2 c.c. is deducted from the number of
cubic centimetres of silver solution used, as being required for
producing the colour. The remainder, multiplied by 2, gives the

* Id case anv weighable quantity of solid impurities is present, thi& must be of
oourae equally deducted.

K

U6 tME TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

percentage of Nad in the salt In lieu of potassium chromate,
sodium arsenate may be employed as indicator. This is even
more sensitive, and no deduction from the silver solution used
should be made in this case.

4. IAfne.—Diaaolye 6 g. of the salt in water, if necessary
with the aid of a little Hul. When analysing impure rock-salt
the treatment with dilute HCl must be continued for some time,
in order to dissolve all CaSOi. It is also necessary to filter on
any day, etc., but non-argillaceous salt ought to dissolve com-
pletely, ezcei>ting any grains of sand and the like. In the dear
solution precipitate the lime with ammonia and ammonium
oxalate, allow to stand for twdve hours, filter the predpitate
tluough a fine filter paper in a well-shaped funnel (cf. p. 110),
wash, dry, and ignite it m a platinum crucible till it is completdy
converted into CaO. This is done by first gently heating till the
calcium oxalate is decomposed, and then igmting at nearly a
white heat for twenty minutes, either over a gas blow-pii)e or,
more conveniently, in a Hemi)ers gas-oven or over a Muencke
burner. One part CaO is equal to 2*4271 CaS04, and is calcu-
lated as such.

5. Sulphates. — Dissolve 10 g. of the salt in tepid water, with
addition of a little hvdrochloric acid. Dilute to 1 litre, filter
through a dry pleated niter, and precipitate 250 c.c. ^=2'5 g. salt)
by barium chloride (cf. p. 110). The sulphate is usually calculated
as CaS04.

6. Magnesium chloride may be titrated directly by drying the
salt, extracting it with absolute alcohol, filtering, evaporatingoff
the alcohol from the filtrate (which contains nothing but Mg0i2),
and titrating wi^ silver nitrate.

B. — ^Saltcake (Sulphate of Soda).

(ir.j5. — Nos. 1 and 2 are sufiSicient for daily examinations of
the produce of works ; the others are employed for saltcake when
bought and sold.)

1. Free Acid. — Dissolve 20 g. saltcake, dilute to 250 c.c, take
out 50 c.c. with a pipette, add methyl orange, and titrate with
standard sodium carbonate to the point of neutralisation. Each
cubic centimetre of the standard alkali is equal to 1 per cent. SO3.
The total acidity is calculated as SO3, induding HCl and NaHSOi-
(If litmus were employed as indicator, the presence of salts of
iron and alumina would cause trouble in the titration; with
methyl orange this is not the case.)

2. Sodium Chloride. — ^Take another 50 ccof the solution made
for the test No. 1, add the same quantity of standard alkali as
used for this test, so that the acid is exactly neutralised, then a

SALTCAKE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID 147

little neutral potassium chromate, and titrate with decinormal
silver solution, as in A, 3. Each cubic centimetre of silver
solution (after deducting 0*2 from the whole) is equal to 0*146 per
cent. NaCl. Or else employ a solution containing 2'905 g. AgN O3
per litre and indicatiug 0*001 g. NaCl per cubic centimetre. This
would, in the present case, indicate 0*026 per cent. NaCl per cubic
centimetre.

3. Iron, — Dissolve 10 g. of sulphate in water, reduce the iron
salts to tlie ferrous state oy a little sulphuric acid and zinc, and
titrate with potassium permanganate (c/; page 142).

4. Eesidue^insoluble in water, is estimated as usual, if present.

5. Lime. — ^Dissolve 10 g. in water, if necessary with a -little
nCl j add NH4CI and NH3, precipitate with ammonium oxalate,
ignite, and weigh as OaO (c/. A, 4). If any appreciable quantity
of Fe^Os has been found, this must be deducte^l.

6. Magnesia is precipitated in the filtrate from No. 5 by
ammonium phosphate ; allow to stand for twenty-four hours ;
filter, wash with dilute ammonia, dry, ignite, and weigh the
magnesium pyrophosx>hate, of which 1 ^urt= 0*3624 M^.

7. Alvmtna, — ^The solution of the saltcake ia precipitated with
ammonia (free from COs). The precipitate is igmted and weighed.
Deducting the weight of Fe^Oa found in No. 3, the remainder
is=AL08.

8. oodium Sulphate (direct estimation), — Dissolve 1 g. of the
saIt(»Lke ; precipitate any lime together with ferric oxide, etc., as
in No. 5 j filter ; evaporate the filtrate to dryness after adding a
few drops of pure sulphuric acid ; ignite ; repeat this after addmg
a ^hiall piece of ammonium carbonate, and weigh. Deduct from
this weight (1) the NaCl found in test No. 2, calculated for
Na^04 (1*0000 NaCl=l*2150 NagSO^, or each cubic centimetre of
decmormal silver solution employed in test No. 2 » 0001 774 g.
Na2S04) ; (2) the MgO found in test No. 6, calculated as MgSO*
(1*000 MgO=2*9836 MgSOi). The remainder is equal to the
sodium sulphate actually present in 1 g. saltcake.

0. — Ohimney-Testinfir.

Act 0/ Parliament, — ^ the Alkali Works Eegulation Act of
1906, it is enacted that " Every alkali work shall be carried on in
such a manner as to secure the condensation to the satisfaction of
the chief inspector, (a) of the muriatic acid gas evolved in such
work to the extent of 95 per centum, and to such an extent
that in each cubic foot of air, smoke, or chimney gases escaping
from the works into the atmosphere, there is not contained more
than one-j^fth part of a grain [=0*457 g. per cubic centimetre]
of muriatic acid; (b) of the acid gases of sulphur and nitrogen
i^hich are evolved in the process of the manufacture of sul-

148 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

pharic add in that wxA to such an extent that the total acidity
of snch gases in each cubic foot of residual f&aes after com-
pletion of the process, and h^ore admixture with air, smoke, or
other gases does not exceed what is eauivalent to four grtUns of
sulphuric anhydride; (c) in the residual gases from the con-
centration or distillation of sulphuric acid, the total acidity of
gases in each cubic foot must not exceed the equival^it of
1^ grain of sulphuric anhydride."

il^roddoric Acid in Ghinmey Gases. — ^In order to ascertain the
HCl m chimney gases, an aspirator is used known as Fletcher's
flexible aspirator, or bellows. This aspirator is sui>poeed to draw
at one aspiration one-tenth of a cubic foot. It is not safe to
trust to t£iis supposed capacity, and moreover the capacity of a
new aspirator varies for some time. To ascertain the real
capacity, fill a ver^ large beaker or other cylindrical vessel with
water, and invert it under water. Completelv fill the aspirator
with air, and expel this air into the inverted oeaker. Mark the
point to which the beaker is filled when the water inside the
beaker is level with that outside. Measure the capacity of the
beaker to that mark, say it contains Y cubic centimetres of water.
Then the number (^ aspirations which must be made with this
aspirator in order to draw 1 cubic foot of air is : —

^- 28290

N=-v-

or if the capacity of the beaker is measured in grains : —

^_ 486485

N will usually be a mixed number, but the nearest integral
number is substituted, and it will be safest to substitute the next
higher integral numb^. Thus, if N be found 9*3, it wiQ be safest
to consider 10 as the number of aspirations necessary to draw 1
cubic foot. The aspirator must be air-tight. The eas is with-
drawn from the chimney throujgh a fflass tube, which should be
sufficiently long to reach a considerable distance into the chimney,
say 6 feet. The glass tube should be of at least \ in. diameter,
otherwise the aspiration is tedious. In flues where the tempera-
ture is too high for glass, a platinum tube must be employed.
The bellows and tube are washed with distilled water until the
washings give no reaction with silver nitrate. 100 or 200 cubic
centimetres of distilled water, free from chloride, are then charged
into the bellows, and after each aspiration the m& is well washed
by shaking the contents of the aspirator violently. TVhien the
number N of aspirations has been made, some water is forced
into the glass tube, and allowed to flow back into the bellows to
wash out any acid which may have condensed in the tube. The

SALTCAKE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID 149

liquid is then transferred into a porcelain dish (or into a beaker
standing on a ^rcelain slab). If the liquid is so highly charged
with soot that it would be impossible to recognise the change of
colotir, it must be filtered through a filter previously washed free
from chlorides. The liquid is then oxidised with potassium
permanganate, and any excess of this reagent removed with a
trace of ferrous sulphate, neutraUsed with pure sodium carbonate,
coloured with potassium chromate, and titrated with decinormal
sUver solution. (See ^.145 A, 3, and Appendix.) Some use a
centinormal silver solution. Call the number of cubic centimetres
consumed =:r, then the hydrochloric acid, in grains per cubic foot
of gas, will be : —

G= 0*056332; grains.

In order to calculate the percentage escape, the velocity of the
gas in the chimney must oe ascertained and reduced to 60° F.
No notice is usually taken of the barometric pressure, since the
measurement by the bellows is otherwise inaccurate. In addition,
the diameter of the chimney and the number of tons of salt
decomposed during twenty-four hours in the furnaces connected
with the diinmey must be known.

If G = number of grains of HCl per cubic foot.
If V = velocity at 60" F. in feet per second,
If D = diameter of chimney at testing-hole in feet.
If T = tons of salt decomposed per twenty-fbur hours assumed
to contain 93 per cent NaCl,

the percentage escape will be : —

GVD2
0-7458 X ^^^

D. — ^Testinfi: of the Gases in the Harfi^reaves'

Process.

(a) Total a/ddipy^Bs described p. 117.

(b) Svlphur dioxide^ as p. 116.

(c) Hydrogen chloride is estimated in the sample taken for
(a), as described p. 148. By deducting (b) and (c) from (a), the
amount of SO3 is found

[E. — ^Hydkochloric Acid.

150 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

B.-*-Hydroolilorio Aold.

1. SPBOIFIO GRAVITY OP PURS HYDBOOHLORIO ACID
AT 16" O. OOMPABBD WITH WATBR AT 4% AND
RBDUCBD TO VAOUUM. (Lnnffe and Bfarchlewskt)

100 parte bj weight ooneepond to

Speeific
OxftTity

puts by weight of

Degrees

1 litre
contains

1 cubic
foot

TwaddeU.

Acid Of

Add Of

g. of
HCl.

contains

4
in vacQO.

HO.

n-Sii'""

spep.gsvity

lbs. ofHGl.

= 28-6'Tw.

= 80-4° Tw.

1-000

0«16

0-67

0-68

1-6

0-10

1

1-006

1-16

4-08

8-84

12*

0-76

2

1-010

2*14

7-60

7*14

22*

1-87

8

1-016

8*12

11-80

10-41

82*

1-99

4

1-020

4-18

14-67

18-79

42-

2-62

5

1-026

6-15

18-80

17-19

68-

8*80

6

1-080

6-15

21-86

20-58

64-

8-99

7

1-085

7-16

26-40

28-87

74-

4-61

8

1-040

8-16

28-99

27*24

86-

6-80

9

1-045

9'16

82-66

80-68

96-

6-98

10

1-050

10-17

86-14

88-96

107

6-67

11

1-065

11-18

89-78

87-88

118

7-86

12

1-000

12-19

48-82

40*70

129

8-04

IS

1-065

18-19

46-87

44*04

141

8-79

14

1-070

14-17

50-85

47-81

162

9-48

15

1-075

16-16

68-87

60-62

168

10-16

16

1-080

16-16

67-89

68*92

174

10-86

17

1-066

17-18

60-87

67*19

186

11-69

18

1-090

18-11

64*85

60*47

197

12-28

19

1-096

19-06

67-78

68-64

209

18-08

20

1-100

20-01

71-11

66-81

220

18-71

21

1-105

20-97

74-62

70-01

282

14-46

22

1-110

21-92

77-89

78-19

248

16-16

28

1-116

22-86

81-28

76-82

266

16-90

24

1-120

28-82

84-64

79-58

267

16-65

25

1-125

24-78

88-06

82-74

278

17-88

26

1-180

25-75

91*60

86-97

291

18-14

27

1185

26-70

94-88

89-15

808

18-89

28

1-140

27-66

98-29

92-85

816

19-64

29

1-145

28-61

101-67

96-62

828

20-45

80

1-150

29-57

105-08

98-78

840

21-20

81

1-156

80-65

108-68

102-00

858

22-01

82

1-160

81-52

112-01

106-24

866

22-82

88

1-166

82-49

115-46

108-48

879

28-68

84

1-170

88-46

118-91

111-71

892

24-44

85

1-175

84-42

122-82

114-92

404

26-19

86

1-180

85-89

125-76

118-16

418

26-06

87

1-186

86-81

129*08

121-28

480

26-81

88

1-190

87-28

182-80

124-80

448

27-62

89

1-196

88-16

185-61

127-41

466

28-48

40

1-200

89-11

188-98

180-68

460

29-24

SALTCAKE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID 151

2. iNFLUBNom OF tbmphratuxib on thb spboific

GRAVITY* OF HTDROOHIjORIO AOID.

0%

6%

10%

15%

20%

26%

80%

85%

40%

46%

50%

1-168

1-166

1*168

1*160

1*167

1*164

1-152

1*149

1*147

1*144

1*142

1-168

1-155

1*168

1*160

1*147

1*146

1*142

1*189

1*187

1*184

1*182

1-148

1-146

1-148

1*140

1*187

1*184

1*182

1*129

1*127

1*126

1*128

1-188

1*186

1-188

1*180

1-127

1*126

1*122

1-119

1-117

1*114

1-112

1-128

1-126

1*128

1*120

1*117

1*116

1-112

1*110

1-108

1-106

1*108

1-118

1*116

1*118

1*110

1*107

1*106

1*108

1*101

1-099

1*097

1*094

1-108

1*106

1*108

1*100

1-097

1-096

1*092

1*090

1-068

1-066

1*084

1-098

1*096

1*098

1-090

1-087

1*066

1*082

1*060

1*077

1*075

1*078

1-068

1*085

1-068

1*080

1*077

1-075

1*078

1*070

1*068

1-066

1*064

1-078

1-076

1-078

1*070

1*068

1-066

1*068

1-061

1*069

1*057

1*066

1-068

1*066

1-068

1*060

1*068

1-056

1-058

1*060

1-048

1-046

1-044

1-068

1*066

1-068

1*060

1*048

1*046

1*048

1*040

1*088

1-086

1-088

1-048

1*046

1*048

1*040

1*087

1*085

1*082

1*080

1*027

1*026

1*022

1-088

1*086

1*088

1*080

1-027

1*024

1*022

1-019

1*017

1-014

1*012

1-028

1*025

1*028

1*020

1-017

1*014

1-012

1*009

1-007

1*004

1*002

1-018

1-016

1*018

1*010

1*007

1*004

1-002

0*999

0-997

0*994

0*992

66%

60%

66%

70%

76%

80%

86%

90%

96%

100%

1-140

1*188

1*186

1*188

1-181

1*129

1-127

1-126

1*128

1-121

1-180

1-128

1*126

1*128

1*121

1*119

1*116

1*114

1*112

1*110

1-120

1*118

1*116

1*118

1-111

1-108

1-106

1*104

1*102

1*099

1-109

1*107

1*104

1*102

1-100

1*097

1*096

1*098

1*090

1*068

1-101

1*099

1-096

1*094

1*091

1*089

1-086

1*084

1*081

1-079

1*098

1-090

1*088

1*066

1*088

1*060

1-078

1*076

1*078

1*070

1-082

1-080

1*078

1-076

1*078

1*071

1-069

1-066

1*064

1*061

1-071

1*069

1-067

1*066

1*068

1*061

1-059

1*067

1*065

1*068

1-062

1*060

1*068

1*066

1*064

1-068

1*051

1*049

1*047

1*046

1-068

1-061

1-049

1-048

1*046

1*044

1*048

1-041

1-089

1-087

1-042

1-040

1*088

1*086

1*084

1-088

1*081

1-029

1-027

1-026

1-081

1-029

1*027

1*026

1*028

1-021

1-019

1-017

1*116

1-018

1*020

1*018

1-016

1*014

1*011

1-009

1-007

1*006

1-008

1-001

1-010

1-008

1*006

1*008

1-001

0*999

0-997

0*995

0-998

0*991

1-000

0*998

0-996

0*998

0-991

0-989

0-987

0*986

0-988

•

0*981

0-990

0*988

0-985

0-988

0*981

0-979

0-977

0*975

0-978

0-971

8. ANAIiTSIS OF HTDROCHLORIC AOID.

(a) Estimation of HCl.— Measure off, by means of an accurate
pipette, 10 C.C. of the acid, the specific gravity of which should be
known, dilute to 200 cc, take out 10 c.c. Or else employ a glass-
tap ppette, as described p. 144, for fuming sulphuric acid ; in this
case its contents are run into water and employed directly for

152 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

titration. Add Bodiom carbonate, free from chlonde^ till the
reaction is neutral or faintly alkaline. This point will be bit
quickly, and without the loss of many drox>s for testing, if the
percentage of the acid is ascertained from its specific gravity by
the table (p. 150) and the corresponding quantity of sodium
carbonate solution is run in from a burette. Now add a little
neutral potassium chroniate, and titrate witli decinormal silver
solution till a faint pink colour is produced {cf. p. 145).
Deduct 0'2 c.c. from the silver solution emi)loyed ; the remainder,
multiplied by 72*92 and divided by the specific gravity of the acid,
indicates its percentage of HQ. This test would fail in the
presence of metallic cnlorides, which aro, however, hardly ever
present in appreciable quantity in ordinary hydrochloric add.
The free HCl can also be ascertained bv estimating the total
acidity and deducting therefrom that due to sulphuric add,
making allowance for anv sodium sulphate present.

(b) EsiimaUon of Sttlph/uric Acid. — ^Neutralise the add almost,
but not quite, wiw sooium carbonate free from sulphate, and
precipitate the sulphuric acid by barium chloride, as on p. 1 10. If
the acid be partially saturated with NHs, or not saturated at all,
the result is too low. Each part of BaS04 is equal to 0*34293 SO3.

(c) EstimaUon of Iron. — Keduoe this to ferrous iron by digesting
the add for a short time with a rod of zinc free from iron, wash
the rod, dilute the whole with water, add some manganous
chloride or sulphate (in order to counteract the action of HG on
permanganate), and titrate with a twentieth normal solution of
potassium permanganate, each cubic centimetre of which indicates
0*002795 g. Fe. In case of SOo being present, this must first be
oxidised to sulphuric acid, before rediicing the ferric salt and
titrating.

(d) Free ChlortTie, — ^Introduce a sample of the add into a
flask, remove the air from the empty space by CO2 ; shake the
acid with a strip of dean metallic copper. The latter will be
converted into chloride by the free chlorme, and the copper thus
dissolved can be detected by potassiimi ferrocyanide, etc. This
win show the smallest traces ot chlorine. For ordinary purposes
it is sufficient to heat the add gently and hold a strip of KI
starch paper in the vapour ; this will at once turn blue in the
presence of free CI.

(e) Svlphvnr i>^o;r^c^.— Oxidise with permanganate, or iodine,
or HX)2 to sulphuric acid, estimate the total H2SO4 now present
as in No. 2, and deduct the quantity there found, the remainder

= S02.

(f) Anenic, — Reduce all to trichloride by passing in SOg for
some time, and precipita,te by H2S as AS2S3. 'Wash the precipitate,
dissolve it on the filter in ammonia, evaporate the solution in a
glass or porcelain dish, dry at 100**, and weigh. One part AsgSj
= 0*60931 As =0*80429 As^Og.

BLEACHING POWDER, ETC. 153

IV. BLBACHING POWDBB AND CHLORATE
OP POTASH MANUFAOTUBB.

A. — ^Natural Manganeae Ore.

1. Manga/nese Dioodde, — Weigh 1*0875 g. of manganese ore,
ground as fine as possible, and dried for some time at 100** C. ;
put it into the flask (Fig. 12) closed by a rubber (Bunsen) valve
or, preferably, into a flask provided with a Contat-Gockel
bulb (Fig. 13), which has been half -filled with a concentrated
solution of sodium carbonate; put into the flask 75 c.c. (in
three portions with a 25 c.c. pipette) of a solution containing

FiQ. 12. Fig. 18.

100 g. pure ciYstallised ferrous sulphate and 100 c.c. pure con-
centrated sulphuric acid, diluted to 1 Htre, and standardised on
the same day by means of the same 25 c.c. pipette, with ded.-
normal potassium permanganate. Close the flask with its cork or
valve, and heat tul the manganese is completely decomposed,
leaving a lifht-ooloured residue. On cooling, the valve must act
prop^y, which will be seen b^ the coUapsing of the rubber
tube, Fig. 12, or by the running m of sodium carbonate solution.
Fig. 13. After complete cooling add 200 c.c. of water, and titrate
with potassium permanganate to a faint pink coloration. Deduct
the quantity of permanganate required from that correspond-
ing to the 75 C.C. of iron solution ; the remainder indicates for
eaich cubic centimetre 0*02175 g., equal to 2 per cent. MnO^.

2. Carbon Dioxide is estimated gravimetricaUy b^ expelling it
with dilute sulphuric or nitric acid and absorbing it with soda-lime,
by means of the apjMiratus and process described (p. 112, "No. 6).
dr more quicUy by Lunge and Kittener's gas-volumetric process,
see p. 169.

154 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

3. Estimation of the Hydrochloric Add required for Decom-
posing the Ore. — Dissolve 1 g. of manganese ore in a flask provided
with a reflux condenser in 10 c.c. of ordinary strong hydrochloric
add the titre of which is known, employing heat as far as necessaiy.
Allow the solution to cool, add standsurd alkali till reddiidi-brown
flakes of ferric hydroxide appear, which do not redissolve on
agitation. Calculate the standard alkali corresponding to the add
employed for dissolving the ore, and deduct the quantity thus
found from the 10 c.c. nrst employed.

B. — Recovered Manganese Mud and Weldon

Uquors.

1. Mn02in Wddon Mud. — Standardise an add iron solution
(100 g. pure crystallised ferrous sulphate +100 c.c. pure concen-
trated sulphuric add in 1 litre) with seminormal potassium
permanganate {cf. Appendix), bv diluting 25 c.c. of tiie
former with 100 c.c. or 200 c.c. of cold water, and adding the
permanganate hom a stopcock burette, till, on agitating, the
pink colour is not discharged immediat^y, but remains at least
for half a minute. Subsequent decolorisation is not taken into
account. This test should be made once each day. Call the cubic
centimetres of permanganate employed x. Now, put another 25
C.C. of the iron solution into a beaker. Take 10 c.c. of manganese
mud out of the well-shaken bottle (mere stirring does not ensure
a proper mixture) containing it ; wash the pipette outside, run its
contents into the beaker containing the iron solution, and wash
the mud remaining inside into the same beaker. When all has
dissolved, on agitating, add 100 cc. of water, and titrate witii
potassium permanganate, llie number of cubic centimetres now
used equals y. The quantity of MnOs in grams per litre of
mud equals 2*176 (^-y).

2. Total Mam^cmese of the Mud, expressed in Grams of
theoretically possiMe Mn02 per Litre. — ^Take 10 cc. of the mud,
witii the same precautions as in test No. 1. Boil with strong
hydrochloric acid till all chlorine is^ driven off; saturate the
excess of acid by ground marble or predpitated calcium carbonate ;
add a concentrated filtered solution of bleadiing powder ; boil a
few minutes till the colour turns a dedded pink, and the excess of
bleaching powder can be smelt, and again oestro;^ the pink colour
by adding alcohol drop by drop. All manganese is now present as
MnOs; niter and wash. The filtrate should not produce any
brown colour with a bleaching-powder solution, which would
show the presence of Mn in solution, dontinue me washing till
starch and KI do not give any reaction. Transfer the filter with
the precipitate into 25 cc. of the acid iron solution employed in
test 1^0 1. If all MnOg is not dissolved, add another 26 cc. of

BLEACHING POWDER, ETC. 155

iron solution; dilute with 100 c.c. of water, and titrate with
permanganate. Calculation as in No. 1.

3. Estimation of the '' Ba*e^ i.e., the Monooddesy etc,, of the Mvd
which comhine with HCl vfiihowt yielding Free Chlorine, — Dilute
25 c.c, or with a ver^ rich base 60 cc, of normal oxalic add (63 g.
crystsJlised oxalic add in 1 litre) to 100 c.c. : heat to 60"* to 80^ C,
add 10 c.c. manganese mud by means oi a pipette, with the
precautions stated in No. 1, and agitate tiU the colour of the
precipitate is no longer yeUowish but pure white, which ought to
take place very soon at the above temperature. Dilute to 202 c.c.
(2 c.c. correspond to the volume of the predpitate, and are
marked on the neck of the 200 c.c flask) ; j)0ur through a dr^
filten and titrate 100 cc. of the filtrate with standara alkah,
employing phenolphthalein as indicator. (Methyl orange is not
ap^cable for oxalic add.) Call the number of cubic centimetres
of standard alkali z. The oxalic add serves (1) for reducing the
Mn02 with formation of MnO and C0« ; (2) for saturating the
MnO thus formed; (3) for saturating tne monoxides origmaUy
present, ^.f ., the base. The oxalic add not thus used is equal to
22. The add used for reducing Mn02 is equal to that used for
neutralising the MnO formed, and both amounts together are
equal to the value x-y obtained by the MnO« test, since the
oxalic acid is normal and the permanganate half normal. The
amount of oxalic acid consumed oy the bases of the mud is found
by deducting from the total acid used that required for the Mn02
{x — y\ and that which was not neutralised at all by the mud — 2z^
therefore in all a; - y — 22;. The " base " is equal to the ratio of this

value to that found in test No. 1, viz., ''-^V

It is, therefore, if 25 cc. of oxalic acid had been employed, equal
to :

50-2a?-4g+2y _ / 50 - 42 \
x-y ~ \ x~y )

or, if 60 cc had been employed, equal to : —

\ «-y J

C. — Limestone.

1. InsdvJble Matter. — Dissolve 1 g. in hydrochloric acid, filter
the residue, wash, dry, and ignite. In the presence of appreci-
able quantities of organic matter weigh the filter after drying
at 100°, and ignite afterwards. The difference is taken as organic
matter.

2. Zm?»«.— Dissolve 1 g. in 25 cc normal hydrochloric acid

156 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

and titrate with ncffmal alkali. Deduct the volume of the latter
used from 25 and multiply the remainder with 2*8 to find the
percentage of CaO, or with 5 to find that of CaCOs. (iiT,^.— Here
MgO is ^culated as CaO. This is admissible for most limestones
employed in alkali and bleaching powder making, because they
contain but little MgO ; otherwise the MgO or MgOOs found as
in No. 3 must be deducted.)

3. Magneaia need only be estimated in limestone used for
manganese recovery. Dissolve 2 g. of limestone in HCl, precipi-
tate the CaO with NHs and ammonium oxalate, and {Nredpitate
the mitfnesia in the filtrate by sodium phosphate {cf. p. 147).

4. Iron is usually estimated only in limestone used for bleach-
ing powder making. Dissolve 2 g. HQ, reduce bv zinc, dilute,
add some manganese solution free from iron, and titrate with
permanganate {cf. p. 142).

D. — Qiiioklime.

1. Free CaO. — ^Weigh 100 g. of an average sample carefnUv
taken, slake it completely, put the milk into a haH-htre fiask, ml
up to the mark, shake well, take 100 c.c. out, run it into a half-
litre flask, fill up, mix well, and employ 25 c.c. of the contents,
equal to 1 g. quicklime, for the test. Titrate with normal oxalic
acid and phenolphthalein as indicator, adding the acid very dovHy
and shakmg well after each addition. The colour is changed
when all free lime has been saturated and before the C^COs is
attacked. One c.c. normal HCl =0*02806 g. CaO.

2. Carbon Dioxide, — Titrate CaO and CaCOs together by
dissolving in an excess of standard hydrochloric acid and titrating
back with standard alkali. Bv deducting the CaO estimated as
in No. 1 the quantity of CaCOs is obtained. For very accurate
estimations the COs is expelled^ by HCl, absorbed m soda-lime,
and weighed as described : or it is estimated by volume in Lunge
and Rittener's apparatus (p. 169).

B.— Slaked Lime.

1. Water, — Weigh about 1 g. in a stoppered glass tube, and
heat it gradually in a platinum crucible^ at last to a strong red
heat (cf, p. 146) ; allow to cool in the exsiccator, and weigh. The
loss of weight is equal to H^O +CO2.

2. Carbon Dioxide is estimated as above in D, 2.

3. Estimation of the percentage of Caustic Lime in Milk of
Lime by means of the ^ecijic gravity (Blattner). — ^Thin milk of
lime is poured into the cylinder and the reading of the hydrometer
is taken quickly, before the lime subsides. For thick milk of lime
employ a somewhat wide cylinder, put the hydrometer in without

BLEACHING POWDER, ETC.

157

nsin^ any force and torn the cylinder slowly 'rotmd, bo that it
receives a slight shaking, until the hydrometer ceases to sink.
The following table is valid for 16° C.

TABI.B SHOWING AMOUNT OP LIMB IN MnUE OF UMB.

(Oalcnlated from Blattner.)

Degrees

Grms. CaO

Lbs. CaO per

Degrees

Grms. GaO^

Lbs. GaO per

Twaddell.

per litre.

cubic foot.

TwaddeU.

per litre.

cabic foot.

2

11-7

0-7

1

1 *^8

177

11-1

4

24-4

1-5

30

190

11-9

6

37-1

2-3

32

203

12-7

8

49-8

3-1

34

216

13-5

10

62-5

3-9

36

229

14-3

12

75-2

4-7

1 38

242

15-1

14

87-9

6-5

40

255

15-9

16

100

6-3

1 42

268

16-7

18

113

7-1

44

281

17-6

20

126

7-9

46

294

18-4

22

138

8-7

48

307

19-2

24

152

9-5

50

321

20-0

26

164

10-3

■

F. — Bleaching Powder.

1. Available Chlorme, — Weigh 7*090 g. of the sample, pre-
viously well mixed • grind it with a little water in a porcelain
mortar (the lip of which has been greased a little underneath) till
a completely homogeneous thin jyaste has been obtained ; dilute
with more watery wash the whole into a litre flask, All up to the
mark, and take for each test 50 c.c.= 0*3645 g. bleaching powder,
having shaken up the flask immediately before. Eun into the
above, with continuous agitation, an alkaline decinormal arsenite
solution, containing 4*96 g. AsgOa per litre (cf. Appendix) till the
expected point is not very far oflF. Then place a drop of the
mixture on to a piece of filter paper, moistened with a starch
solution containing potassium iodide. If there is verjr much
chlorine left, a brown spot will be produced ; if less chlorine, the
spot will be blue. According to the depth of this colour more or
less arsenite solution is run in, and the above test is repeated till
the paper is coloured hardly perceptibly, or not at all. Each
cubic centimetre of the arsenite^ solution indicates 1 per cent,
available chlorine. (For sampling of bleach, </. Appendix.)

Anotlier very accurate method, requiring no standard solution,

168 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

consists in decomposing the bleaching powder by hydrogen
peroxide in a nitrometer or gas-volumeter (Lunge, S,CJ., 1890,
22).

2. Compat'ison of the Percentage of Bleaching Powder mth ike
French (Gay-Ltistac) Degrees. — The latter are understood to mean
the number of litres of chlorine gas at 0** 0. and 760 mm. pressure,
which could be given off by 1 kilogram of bleaching powder.
The oxygen given off in the hydrogen peroxide method (cf last
paragra^) shows this directly.

French

Per cent.

French

Per cent.

French

Per cent.

French

Per cent.

Degrees.

Chlorine.

Degrees.

Chlorine.

Degrees.

Chlorine.

Degrees.

Chlorine.

63

20-02

80

25-42

97

30-82

113

35-91

64

20-84

81

25-74

98

31-14

114

36-22

65

•20-65

82

26-06

99

31-46

115

36-54

66

20-97

83

26-37

' 100

31-78

116

36-86

67

21-29

84

26-69

, 101

32-09

117

37-18

68

21-61

85

27-01

102

32-41

118

37-50

69

21-93

86

27-33

, 103

32-73

119

37-81

70

22-24

87

27-65

104

33-05

120

38-13

71

22-56

88

27-96

105

33-36

121

38-45

72

22-88

89

28-28

106

33-68

122

38-77

73

23-20

90

28-60

107

84-00

123

39-08

74

23-51

91

28-92

108

34-32

124

39-40

75

23-88

92

29*23

109

34-64

125

39-72

76

24-15

93

29-55

110

34-95

126

40-04

77

24-47

94

29-87

111

35-27

127

40-36

78

24-79

95

30-19

112

35-59

128

40-67

79

25-10

96

30-51

1

1
1

3. Carbon Dioxide in Bleaching Powder or Bleach Liquors hy
Lwn/ge and Rittener^s Process, — The same apparatus is employed
as thiait described later on for sodium carbonate solutions (p. 169),
and the operation is carried out in the same way, but no aluminium
must be used in this case for expelling the gases, but 2 or 3 c.c.
of a 3 per cent, solution of hydrogen peroxide which during the
final boiling gives out oxygen gas.

Employ only so much of the substance that not more than 50
or 60 C.C. of gas (CO2 and CI2) is formed ; read off the volume of the
gases =c in the Bunte burette, charged with concentrated sodium
chloride solution, after allowing twenty minutes for cooling, and
after putting the level-bottle in the proper position. Introduce
into the burette funnel an excess of decmormal arsenic solution
=d c.c. ; run this slowly into the burette, so that it forms a layer
above the salt solution ; wash the funnel two or three times with
a few c.c. of water ; shut off the connection with the level-bottle,

BLEACHING POWDER, ETC.

159

shake for two minutes ; run into the burette so much of a 30 per
cent, solution of sodium hydroxide that, on shaking, no more will
run in^ read off the volume of gas =6. The figure c- 6, or, after
reduction to 0° and 760 mm. c^-^x, indicates the absorbed c.c.
CO2 + CI2. Now run the contents of the burette into a flasl^wash
the burette with water, add to the whole an excess of NaUCOs,
and titrate with decinormal iodine; the c.c. used=e. Since

n

20,000 C.C. -^ arsenic solution indicate 22,030 c.c. Clo, we have
'10

had in the burette.

22080
20000

X (d ~ tf) cc. chlorine.

and together with this.

, -. 22030,, V ^^
("^-*^) - 2-0000 ^^"'^^•^•^^^

4. l^esting the Atmosphere of the Chambers fai\Chlortne before
opening them, — ^In England a maximum of 5 grains chlorine per
cubic foot (=11'6 ff. per cubic metre) is
prescribed before the chamber may be
ox)ened. This is ascertained by the appar-
atus, Fig. 14. A is a rubber pressure ball
holding about 100 cc, B a hole in its
mouthniece, D a glass tube reaching nearly
to the Dottom of the glass jar E ; its lower
end is contracted so that only a thin needle
can pass through. E is charged with 26 c.c.
of a solution, so prepared l^t ten deliveries
of the bulb indicate 2^ grains (or five de-
liveries 6 grains) ddonne per cubic foot.
It is prepared by dissolving 0*3486 arsenious
acid in sodium carbonate solution, neutral-
ising with sulphuric add, adding 25 g.
potassium iodid!e, 5 g. precipitated calcium
carbonate^ 6 to 10 drops liquor ammoniae,
and diluting the whole to 1 litre. To the
26 c.c. of this solution add a little starch
solution, introduce the outer end of D into
the bleaching-powder chamber 2 feet above
the bottom, compress A and close the hole B
by a finger, whereupon the pressure on A is
relieved. By the expansion of the rubber
ball A chamber air is aspirated into the
liquid contained in E. Note the number of
times the ball'A must be employed as de-
scribed, before the liquid is coloured by the separation of iodine,
Accordmg to the prescribed limit, this number should be at least 5.

Fia. 14.

160 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

G. — ^Deacon Process.

1. Proportion of HCl and CI in the Gases, — Aspirate 5 litres
of gas, issaing from the decomposer, placing the apparatus as
near to the outlet of the decomposer as possiole, and absorb the
hydrochloric acid and chlorine in a solution of caustic soda of W
Tw., of which about 250 c.c. are distributed into two or three
absorbing bottles. The time of absorption ought to agree with
the time occupied by the charge in ike saltcake pan. Unite the
contents of the several bottles and dilute to 500 c.c.

(a) Take 100 c.c. of this solution, and add it gradually to 25
c.c. ot an iron solution (prepared ana standardised as directed on
page 154) in a flask as shown in Fig. 13, p. 153, and heat to
bouing. Allow to cool, dilute with 200 c.c of water, and titrate
with seminormal permanganate solution. Say it required v c.c.
Suppose that when standardising the iron solution 25 c.c. of iron
solution required x c.c.

(b) Take 10 c.c. of the solution to be tested, add some solution
of sulphurous acid, acidify with dilute sulphuric add ; if it does
not smell of sulphurous add, add a little more. Heat to boiling.
When cool, add, if necessary, a few drops of perman^ate to
oxidise any sulphurous acid m excess. Neutralise with pure
carbonate of soda, dilute with water, and after adding a few
drops potassium chromate, titrate with decinormal silver solution.
Suppose it requires z c.c. of silver solution. Then

50a? -y

z

is the x)ercentage of hydrochloric add decomposed, and

43-53 + —^

equals the amount of air present for every volume of hydrochloric
acid. If any other volume, I, of gas instead of 5 litres be employed,
the constant 43*53 becomes

1 *624n

50 X 0*003645

assuming that the other directions are strictly followed, and that
1 litre of hydrochloric acid weighs 1*624 g. at 15'' C. at 760 mm.
pressure.

2. Carbon Dioxide. —Pass 20 litres of the gas, from which the
HCl has been removed by water, into an ammoniacal solution of
barium chloride, heat this finally, filter the BaCOg and estimate

BLEACHING l>OWr)ER, ETC. 161

tills by igniting, or by oonverting it into BaSO^, of which 1 g.
=0-1886 g.CO^ (7/. also below, M^ H.

3. Steam,— raaa the gas through a weighed tube, containing
pumice moistened with strong sulphuric acid, and before reweigh-
ing remove the other gases by a current of air.

H. — meotrolytio Chlorine.

Examination for Carbon Dioxide, — Chlorine gas produced by
hieans of gas carbon electrodes may contain up to 12 per cent,
carbon dioxide^ This CX)2 is estimated by Ferchland's process,
as modified in Lunge's laboratory.

A dry Bunte burette, the content of which (from tap to tap = v)
is exactly known, is nUed with the chlorine by passing this
through for some time, the gas i)assing in from below, so as to
rise regularly below the lighter air. When filled with the chlorine
gas under atmospheric pressure, the burette is fixed in a clamp in
a vertical position, and a level tube is attached by means of a
strong rubber tube, fiUed with mercury to the bottom tap, which
has a single bore. The rubber tube must be entirely filled with
mercury, so tJiat no air can get into the burette, and it is secured
against slipping off by iron wire. When the bottom tap of the
burette is opened, mercury enters into the burette and absorbs
the chlorine, at first pretty quickly, but later on its surface is
covered by a pellicle, which precludes further action. Then the
bottom tap is closed, and by agitating the burette the complete
absorption of the chlorine is effected. The sides of the burette
are thereby covered with a non-transparent layer, and a mixture
of mercurous chloride and mercury floats on tne top of the
mercury, which prevents reading off the volume. When the
absorption of the chlorine is finished, open the bottom tap, put
the level of the mercury approximately equal in the burette and
the level tube, and allow ten or fifteen mmutes for the equalisa-
tion of the tempierature. Now put 1 c.c. saturated solution of
sodium chloride into the top beaker, and allow this to enter the
burette by lowering the level tube. This causes the pulverulent
mixture on the top of the mercury to subside, and an easily read-
able surface to be formed. Then adjust the levels for atmospheric
pressure, as described in the case of the nitrometer (p. 137) and
read the volume of gas=a. Now introduce a little concentrated
solution of potassium hydroxide through the funnel into the
burette, absorb the CO2 by shaking, re-establish atmospheric
pressure, and read the new volume of gas =6. The formula

(a - 0) 100 gjjQ^g ^jjg percentage of CO2 in the crude chlorine gas.

V

No correction for vapour tension of water need be made in this
case, if concentrated solutions have been used.

162 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

L — Ghlorate of Potash.

1. Chlorate Liquor b contain calcium chlorate and chloride,
but these are calculated as potassium salts for the sake of con-
venience.

(a) Chlorate is estimated both in order to check the work and
to calculate the necessary addition of KCl. Measure 2 c.c. of
liquor in an accurate pipette, run it into the flask (Fig. 13, p. 153),
add a little hot water and one drop of alcohol, boil (without the
valve) till all smell of chlorine and the pink colour have dis-
appeared, allow to cool, add 25 c.c. of the strongly acid ferrous
sulphate solution (</. p. 154, and requiring a c.c. of seminormal
permanganate), close the flask with its valve, and boil for ten
minutes. After cooling, titrate with seminormal permanganate.
The number of cubic centimetres reauired to produce a faint
pink =6. The liquor then contains calcium chlorate equivalent
to 5*105 (a - h) g. kClOs per litre, and it will theoretically require

JIU3 p
[a-h)

an amount of 3'106 (a - 0) g. of pure KCl per litre.

(b) Chloride is estimated in order to check the work, and is
therefore calculated as ECl, although present as CaCl2. Treat 1
C.C. of liquor as above, to destroy the free chlorine and pink
colour, alTow to cool, add a little neutral potassium chromate, and
titrate with decinormal silver nitrate (as described p. 145). Each
cubic centimetre of the latter indicates chloride equivalent to
7-46 g. Ka per litre.

2. Commercial Chlorate of Potash is only tested for anj
chlorides calculated as KCl. As their quantity is very small, it
is advisable to dissolve 50 g. of the salt in water absolutely free
from chlorine, and to test with decinormal silver nitrate, as in
1 (b). Each cubic centimetre of this solution =0*00746 g. KC1=
0*015 per cent. KCl.

K. — Bleach Liquors.

These are tested like Bleaching Powder, p. 157.
Electrolytic Bleach Liquor, see p. 191.

BLEACHING POWDER, ETC.

163

FRBSS

UKB AND SPBO

IFIO GRAVITY <

3P UQUID

OHLORINB. (Knletsch.)

Temperature.

Pressure.

Specific Gravity.

Mean coefficient
of expansion.

-SS**

37*5 mm. Hg.

t • •

-85

45-0

t • •

-80

62-5

1-6602

N

-75

88-0

1-6490

-70

118

1-6382

-66

159

1-6273

-60

210

1-6167

-65

275

1-6055

0-001409

-50

360

1 -6945

-45

445

1-5830

-40

560

1-5720

-35

705

1 -5589

-33-6

760

1-5575

/

-30

l*20atm.

1-5485

N

-25

1 -50 „

1-5358

-20

1-84 „

1 -5230

-15

2-23 „

1-5100

0-001793

-10

2-63 „

1-4965

- 5

3-14 „

1-4830

±

3-66 „

1-4690

>

+ 6
+ 10

4*25 „
4-95 „

1-4548
1-4405

1 0-001978

+ 15
+ 20

5-75 „
6-62 „

1 -4273
1-4118

} 0-002030

+ 25

+ 30

7-63 „
8-75 „

1 -3984
1 -3815

1 0-002190

+ 35

+ 40

9-95 „
11-50 „

1-3683
1-3510

1 0-002260

50
60

14-70 „
18-60 „

1-3170
1-2830

1 0-002690

70
SO

23-00 „
28-40 „

1 -2430
1 -2000

1 0-003460

90

34-50 „

100

41-70 „

110

50-80 „

120

60-40 „

130

71-60 .,

146

93-60 .,,

Critical

Point

164 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

V. SODA ASH UANUFAOTUBB BT THB
LBBLANO PBOOBSS.

A. — Raw Materials

-. — ^^,. p. 146).

2. Limestone or Chalk, tor mixing.

Insdvble.—^Cf, p. 156)»

Ltme (+MgO).— (P. 166).

1. Saltcake.— <C/'. p. 146^.

Ci

(a^ IiMdvble.^Cf, p.J56).

(c) Magnesia (only in limestones containing much magnesia).—
(P. 166).
3. Mixing Coal (slack).

(a) Moisture, — (P. 96).

(b) Fixed Carbon.— (P. 95).

(c) Ash (p. 95). — ^In the case of unknown descriptions of coal
it is not sufficient to estimate the^ total percentage of fi^, but
the latter should be analysed, and silica, alumina, and ferric oxide
estimated according to the methods for the analysis of silicates.

(d) Sulphur, — Mix 0*5 g. to 1 g. of finely ground coal with one
and a half times the weight of an intimate mixture of two parts
well-calcined magnesia and one part anhydrous sodium carbonate.
This is done by means of a glass rod in a platinum crucible, which
is heated without cover, and in a slanting i)osition, so that only
its lower half attains red heat, preferably in the perforated
asbestos board (Fig. 1, p. 96). The combustion should be assisted
by frequent stirring with a platinum wire, and should not last
longer than an hour, the grey colour of the mixture passing
into yellow, reddish, or browii. Pour hot water over the mass,
add bromine- water till the liquid is faintly yellow ; boil, decant
through a filter, and wash with hot water. Acidulate the filtrate
with HCl, boil till all bromine is removed and the liquor has been
decolorised, and precipitate with barium chloride (as described
p. 96). If the magnesia or sodium carbonate employed contains
sulphates, these must be estimated and taken into account. If
the gas contains much sulphur, it is best to employ a spirit lamp,
but the perforated asbestos board, as recommended above, wul
nearly always suffice to keep away the products of combustion of
the gas from the contents of the crucible, and thus admit of
employing ordinary illuminating gas and a Bunsen burner.

(e) Nitrogen is estimated by igniting with soda-lime and absorb-
ing the ammonia formed in standard sulphuric acid, according to
the method employed in organic analysis.

B. — Black-Ash.

Digest 50 g. of ^ the finelv powdered average sample with 480
c.c. of water at 45'' C, which have been previously fr^ from COj

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE 165

and O by boiling and cooling down in a corked bottle. This will
produce 500 c.c. of liquid. Shake at once and afterwards fre-
quently, at least during two hours. The following tests are made
partly with the muddy mixture, partly with the clear portion ;
the former ones must be made to begin with.

1. Tests made with the Muddy Mixtuke.— Each time
before taking out a sample, the flask is thoroughly shaken up,
and before the deposit settles again a sample is taken by means
of a 5 c.c. pipette, with a short and somewhat wide outlet (to
prevent obstruction by the mud). The mud outwardly adhering
IS washed off, the contents of the pipette are run out into a beaker,
and the mud adhering to the inside of the pipette is washed into
the same beaker.

(a) Free Lime (or its equivalent of sodium hydroxide) is
estimated by adding to 5 c.c. of the mixture an excess of
barium chloride solution, as well as a drop of phenolphthalein
solution, and titrating with J normal oxalic acid, till the red
colour has just vanished. Each c.c. of the acid =0*00561 g. CaO.

(b) Total Lime, — 5 c.c. of the muddy mixture are put into a
flask, a few c.c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid are added, and
the whole is boiled till all the gases have been expelled. Cool
down a little, add a drop of methyl orange solution, and neutralise
exactly with sodium carbonate, i.e., till the red colour has just
gone. Then add 30 c.c. of J normal sodium carbonate solution,
measured exactlv, and heat to boiling, to precipitate all the lime
as CaCOa (together with any ferric oxide, alumma and magnesia,
the quantity of which is too insignificant to be regarded for this
test). Wash the whole into a -200 c.c. flask, fill up to the mark,
take 100 c.c. of the clear liquid, and titrate back with ^ normal
hydrochloric acid. Deduct the c.c. used x 2 from 30 ; the differ-
ence X 0'00561 = total lime, or x O'OlOOl = calcium carbonate.

{N'.B, — These tests cannot be expected to give very accurate
results, owing to the almost insurmountable difficulty of obtaining
a real average sample of black-ash ball. This, however, applies to
all tests made with black-ash.)

2. Tests made with the Clear Portion.— After having
made all the tests described imder 1, allow the mixture to settle
down in the well-corked flask, and take samples of the supernatant,
clear liquid for the following tests : —

(a) Available Alkali and Sodium Carbonate, — 10 c.c. ( = 1 g.
black-ash) is titrated cold with hydrochloric acid and methyl
orange. This indicates the total available alkali, i,e,, Na2C03,
NaOH, and Na2S. (The small quantity of alumina and silica
present causes no appreciable error.) By deducting the quantities
found in tests Nos. 2 and 3 the quantity of sodium carbonate is
found, viz., 0*05305 g. for each cubic centimetre of normal HCl.
It is, however, expressed, like all other sodium compounds, in

166 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

terms of Na^O, by multiplying each cubic centimetre of normal
acid used by 0*03105.

(b) Caustic Soda is estimated by adding to 20 cc. of solution,
contamed in a 100 cc. flask, an excess of barium chloride (10 cc.
of a 10 per cent, solution oi BaCl^, 2H2O, will always more than
suffice for this), adding boiling water up to the mark, shaking up,
and corkinfi^ tne flask. After a few minutes the precipitate
settles. Take out 60 cc. of the clear portion, without filtering,*
and titrate with normal hydrochloric acid. When employing
methyl orange as indicator, the liquid must be cooled first and
the titration must be made slowly, with constant shaking. Each
cubic centimetre of the standard acid indicates 0*04006 g. of
NaOH in 1 ff. of black-ash =0'031 06 g. Na20, but sodium sul^de
is also induded.

(c) Sodivm Svlphide, — Dilute 10 cc of solution to about 200 cc,
employing water freed from oxygen by boiling, acidulate with
acetic acid, and titrate quickly witn iodme solution, using starch
as an indicator. When emplo^g a decinormal iodine solution
(12'697 g. I per litre), each cubic centimetre indicates 0*003908 g.
NagS ( = 0*0031 05 g. NagO). A solution containing 3*249 g. I per litre
would indicate 0001 g. Na^ per cubic centimetre. In the former
case the number of cubic centimetres of decinormal solution
divided by 10 can be deducted at once from the acid employed in
test No. 1, whereby the sulphide is eliminated from uie alkali
test. Other sulphur compounds (except sulphate) need not be
taken account of in fresh black-ash.

(d) Sodium CA^ortcfe.—Neutralise 10 cc of the liquor as
accurately as possible with nitric acid, preferably by adding
exacthr as many cubic centimetres of standard nitnc acid (63*02
g. HNO3 per litre) as had been employed in test No. 1. Boil till
all H2S nas been exx)elled, filter from any suli)hur precipitated,
add a little neutral potassium chromate, and titrate with silver
solution (as described p. 145). Each cubic centimetre of deci-
normal silver solution indicates 0*00585 g. NaCl. A solution con-
taining 2*906 g. AgNOa per litre corresponds to 0*001 g. NaCl per
cubic centimetre.

(e) Sodium Sulphate, — ^Acidulate 10 cc with a very slight
excess of HCl, boil, add barium chloride, filter, wash, and ignite
the precipitated BaS04. Since the quantity is very small, it can
be washed with hot water on the filter itself, which is then placed
in the moist state in a platinum crucible and ignited. Eacn part
of BaS04= 0*6089 Na2S04.

(f) Prepare an average sample of all batches by pouring a
certain quantity of the liquor belonging to each batch into a
common vessel : carbonate this by passing CO2 through it, filter,
evax>orate the nitrate to dryness, and estimate Na2C03, Na^04,
and NaCl in the residue.

* The iUter paper absorbs an appreciable portion of barium salt.

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE 167

O. — Tank Waste (Vat Waste).

Take a large, really representative, average sample, which
should be kept i)rotectea from air, and of whicm 60 g. should be
weighed out mdcMy and in the moist state. Drying in contact
with air would considerably change its composition. Moist tank
waste may be assumed, without any great error, to contain 40 per
cent, of water. Digest the above 50 g. waste with 490 c.c. water
of 40** C, which wm yield 500 c.c. of uquid.

1. AvailMe Soda (NajCOo, or NaaS).—Take 100 c.c. of the
liquor, i)ass into it a current of well-washed carbon dioxide, heat
the liquid to boiling, bring up the volume again to 100 c.c., pour
through a diy filter, and titrate 50 c.c. of the dear portion with
decinormal hydrocnloric acid, of which each c.c. will indicate
0'003105 g. NajO, or, in this case, 0*0621 per cent. NajO on the
moist waste.

2. Total Soda (indttnve of Insolvhle Sodivm Salts), — Heat
17*71 g.* tank waste in a porcelain or iron dish with sulphuric
acid of si>ecific gravity 1*5, till all has been decomiK)Bea and
converted into a stiff paste^ evaporate to dryness, heat till all free
sulphuric add has been driven ofif, add hot water, scrape out the
mass, and put it into a 250 c.c. cylinder. Neutralise any free
acid left, and predpitate any magnesia present by adding pure
milk of ume (obtained from ordinary slaked lime dv pourmg off
tJie first water, which may contain some alkali), nil up to the
mark, allow to settle, take out 50 c.c. of the dear liquor, add 10
C.C. of saturated baiyta water, pour the mixture through a dry
filter, take 50 c.c. of the filtrate, precipitate all baryta by passing
through the liquid CO2 and boiung, filter, and titrate the filtrate
with decinormial hydrochloric acid. Eaich cubic centimetre of
this will indicate 0*1 per cent, of "Nb^O in the waste, taking into
account its bulk.

3. Total amd OxidisaMe Svlphur, — Boil 2 g. of the waste with
hydrochloric acid, filter, wash with dilute HCl, neutralise the
filtrate almost completely by adding sodium carbonate, precipitate
wilii barium chloride, filter, wash, and i^te the barium sulphate.
From this the sulphur present as sulphate is calculated (a).
Another sample of 2 g. waste is oxidised by a strong bleaching-
powder solution and hydrochloric acid, or by a solution of bromine
m strong hydrochloric acid. When a strong smell of chlorine
persists^ ail S is oxidised to sulphuric acid. Filter and estimate the
SO4H2 m the filtrate. This indicates the total sulphur (6). The
difference h-a\a the oxidisable sulphur, i.e,^ the theoretically
recoverable maximum of sulphur in the waste.

* This amount is oorrect, not 18*6 g., as calculation would seem to show, hecause
an allowance must be mi^le for the hulk of the insoluble residue in the measuring
yesscds.

168 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS" HANDBOOK

D, — Tank Uquor (Vat Uquor).

Vat liquor is tested while hot, or else it is kept at about 40** C,
to prevent crystallisation. Take out only small samples (2 to 5
c.c.) witii an accurate pipette. This greatly facilitates the work.

1. Sodium Carbonate. — ^Titrate 2 c.c. with standard hydro-
chloric acid. When employing methvl orange as indicator, first
add some cold water. From the volume required deduct that
found in test No. 2 and one-tenth of that in test Na 3.

2. Sodium Hydroxide (estimated as on p. 166).

3. Sodium Sulphide is estimated bydecmormal iodine solution
(as on p. 166). The error caused by other sulphur compounds is
hardly appreciable, and for practical purposes of no consequence.
In any case this test must be made in order to correct test No. 1.

4. Sodium Sulphate (as on p. 166).

5. Total Sulphur. — ^()xidise the hquor with bleaching powder
and hydrocUonc acid (as described C. 3, p. 167), and precipitate
with barium chloride.

6. Sodium Chloride (as on p. 166).

7. Sodium Ferrocyamde, — Acidulate 20 c.c. of liquor (or more)
with HOI, and add strong bleaching-x)owder solution from a
burette, constantly agitating. From time to time mix a drop of
the mixture on a white slab with a drop of dilute ferric chloride
solution, free from ferrous chloride. When no more Prussian
blue is formed, but the mixture of both drops turns brown, all is
oxidised, hence also all f errocyanide is turned into ferricyanide.
A drop of bleach solution in excess does no harm, but if too much
excess has been used, or if too much liquor has been lost by ta^g
out test drops, a fresh sample is taken out, which can then
be oxidised by running the requisite quantitjr of bleach liquor
from the burette without losing much by makmg the drop-tests.
This method gives quicker and more accurate results than adding
an excess of bleach and driving out the chlorine by heating, in
which case some ferricyanide may be decomposed. The oxidised
liquor is titrated with decinormal copper solution, containing
3*18 g. Cu or 1 2*488 g. crystallised cupric sulphate per litre, which
precipitates yellow Cu3Fe3Cyi2. From time to time test a drop
of the liquid by bringing it together on a porcelain slab witih a
drop of a dilute ferrous sulphate solution. So long as a bine
colour is produced by the action of FeS04 on NasFeCye more
copper solution is added, till the test on the slab does not turn
blue or grey, but reddish. Now no more NagFeCyg is present,
and the Fe«04 on the slab reduces the yeUow copper ferri-
cyanide to red ferrocyanide. The first sensible reddening must
be taken as the final reaction, although it vanishes after a short
time. According to theory, each cubic centimetre of the copper
solution ought to indicate 0*01013 g. Na4FeCy6 ; but direct experi-
ments (Chem. Ind,^ 1882, p. 79) have shown this not to Iw

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE

169

the case. Too little copper solution is employed, and each cubic
centimetre of this must therefore be regarded as equal to 0*0123 g.
NasFeCyo, or, still better, the copper solution must be standardised
by pure potassium ferrocyanide.

8. Silica, Alvmi/najomd Ferric Oxide (Pamdl)» — Supersaturate
100 c.c. of liquor with HCl, boil, add a large quantity of ammonium
chloride and ammonia in excess, and boil till all smell of NH3 has
ceased. The precipitate settles easily, and can be well washed.
On washing with hot water it turns intensely blue (owing to the
formation of Prussian blue ?) ; on igniting it leaves Si02, AI2O3,
and FegOs.

9. A large sample of the liquor is carbonated by passing CO2
through it; it is then filtered, evajwrated to dryness, and the
residue tested for available alkali, Na2S04 and NaCL

S. — Carbonated Liquor.

This is tested like tank liquor (No. D) ; also for bicarbonate.
This is done with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes as
follows. Titrate 10 c.c. of liquor, without diluting it, in the cdd
with normal hydrochloric acid, em-
ploying ^henolphthalein as indi-
cator, until this is decolorised. The
temperature should not be much

above 0^ The c.c. of -^ HCl used

~a. Now add a drop of methyl
orange and more acid, until the

colour changes; the c.c. ^ HCl

used for this = b. Then b-a indi-
cates the bicarbonate, -Sa the soda
present as Na2C03, a+b the total
soda. For other methods, see
"Bicarbonate,'' p. 184.

The most accurate and at the
same time the quickest method for
estimating carbon dioxide, both in
small and in large quantities, is
that of Lunge and Kittener (Z.
angetv. Chem., 1906, p. 1849).
Their apparatus is shown in Fig.
15. The small flask B, holding

about 30 c.c, is provided with a tap funnel C and a long capillary
D, which is connected with the lateral capillary of the two-way
tap E of tJie gas-burette A. D should be cut off at the lower
surface of the rubber stopper of B. Introduce so much substance
(solid or liquid) into a that it cannot yield more than 80

Fig. 15.

170 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

C.C. CO2; also 15 c.c. of the finest aluminiam wire, rolled up in
a spiral. Then close B and connect D with tap E of burette A.
This is an ordinary Bunte burette ; as usual, it is divided in c.c.,
beginning below the tap E with 100. going downwards to B, then
again to - 10 cc. leaving a few c.c. of undivided space down to the
tap F. A level-Dottle, &, can be connected with F in the ordinary
manner ; it contains a saturated solution of sodium chloride. At
the beginning of the operation F is not connected with G, but
with a water-pump which is turned on for two or three minutes,
in order to evacuate Uie apparatus B-D~A. F is then closed
and the capillary below this tap connected with the rubber tube
of the level-bottle G. By cautiously opening F, a little of the
salt solution is allowed to pass from G through F, till it appears
just above this tap in the capillary space of A. This is done in
order to check any leak at F.

If a solution is to be tested which is not previously contained
in flask B, it is poured into funnel C, and by cautiously opening
the tap it enters into B. Rinse C twice or thrice with a little
water, and then introduce through C enough hjrdrochloric acid to
decoinpose the carbonate and dissolve the aluminium wire. If B
contains initially a solid substance or a solution, the acid is of
course run in directly through C. In any case this is done drop
by drop, to avoid a violent reaction. When it slackens, heat B
gentty, until the aluminium is dissolved, and then bring the
solution to the boil, until drops of water condense in E. Now
close E and allow water to enter through C, to completely fill the
flask B and the capillary C. If a few small bubbles of gas should
remain in C, they are transferred to A bv cautiously opening £
for a few moments. Next detach the capillary D from E, and wait
twenty to twenty-five minutes, so that the gas in A is cooled down
to the temperature of the outer air. Read the thermometer H,
attached to the upper part of A by means of rubber rin^, note
also the barometer, cautiously open tap E, until the liquid in G
and A stands at the same level, close F, and read the volume of
gas in A, preferably by means of a Goeckel reading-screen.

Now run a solution of caustic soda (1 : 2 water) through E into
A, without taking notice of any precipitation of calcium carbonate,
which will take place in A, if a solution of impure common salt
has been used in tiie level-bottle G. Close E, shake A, in order
to promote the absorption of CO2, adjust the liquid in G and A
to the same level, read off the volume in A, introduce more
caustic soda solution until this causes no further contraction of
the volume of gas.

The difference between the first reading a and that taken after
absorption of the COg^^ shows the volume of the C0« originally
present, which is reduced to 0° and 760 mm. in the usual way. Of
course regard must be had to the fact that the tension of a
saturated NaCl solution is less than that of pure water; for
ordinary temperatures it may be put =80 per cent, of the tension

\jr I nc m

UNIVERSITY 1

^i>A ASH MANUFACTURE 171

of pure water (Table 24, p. 56), so that, «.(/., at 15" C. it will be 12
mm. instead of 15 mm.

If you call the yolumes of gas, reduced to the normal state, a^
and bi and the weight (or volume) of substance employed w, its
percentage of CO2 is : —

19766(0^-6^)

n

Instead of absorbing the CO2 in the burette A, as described, it
might be transferred, by raising G, into a Hempers or Dreh-
schmidt's absorption-pipette, attached to a. This pipette is filled
with caustic soda solution. After the CO2 has been absorbed, the
remaining gas is retransferred to A, by raising G. E is then
closed, the liquid adjusted to the same level in A and G, and the
volume of the gas read a^d reduced to normal conditions as above.

F. — Mother Liquor.

This is tested like uncarbonated tank liquor, p. 168. But in
this case it is necessary to estimate sulphide, sulphate, sulphite,
and thiosulphate in the presence of one another. The most con-
venient method for this purpose is that of Lunge and Smith
(Chem, Ind.. 1883, p. 301), which is as foUows : —

(a) Sulphate is estimated by displacing the air in the flask by
CO2 (to prevent oxidation by air), heating, acidulating, and pre-
cipitating with BaCl2.

(b) Other Compoimds of Sulphur, — ^In a second sample deter-
mine the consumption of decinormal iodine solution, after diluting
vdth water free from air and acidulating with acetic acid.

(c) To a sample, four times the amount of (b), add zinc acetate
or cadmium carbonate, in order to remove the Na2S, dilute it to a
known volume, allow to settle, and take a quarter of the clear
liquid for each of the following tests :—

(1) The consumption of decinormal iodine =M.

(2; To another quarter add, without acidulating it, a large
excess of permanganate solution of the value W (see below), me
solution to be tested being run into the permanganate solution ;
then an acid solution of ferrous sulphate, of known value against
KMn04, is added in excess, and tiEe excess is titrated back by
permanganate. The total permanganate solution used, less that
corresponding to the ferrous sulphate, is called N.

STne value W signifies the quantity of permanganate solution
I in accordance with the equation : —
SNagSaOa + 8KMn04 + HgO = 3Na2S04 + 3K2SO4 + SMnOg + 2K0H.

which is found by calculation, or else experimentally by titration
of pure sodium thiosulphate.)

If we call the sulphur of thiosulphate S, that of sulphate «, we

have '^"^

S = K8WN-0-0064M)
8 ^ 2WN-2&

172 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

By deducting M from the result of the original iodine titra-
tion (b) you find the amount of Na2S.

Another method for the same purpose, by Richardson and
Ackroyd, has been published in Joum, Soc. (jhem, Ind,, 1896, p.

172.

w

G. — Tables.

1. SPEOIFIC ORAVITDDS OF SOLUTIONS OF SODIUM

OARBONATB AT 16° C.

Per cent.

by weight.

1 cable metTe contains
kUog.

Specific
gravity.

Degrees
Twaddell.

Degrees
Banme.

NaaCOg.

NaaOOa,
10 aq.

NaaCOj.

NaaOOs,
10 aq.

1-000

0-00

0-00

0-00

0-00

1-005

1

0-7

0-45

1-21

4-52

12-16

1-010

2

1-4

0-91

2-46

9-19

24-85

1-016

3

2-1

1-39

8-75

14-11

38-06

1-020

4

2-7

1-90

6-13

19-38

52-33

1-025

5

3-4

2-85

6-34

24-09

64-99

1-030

6

4-1

2-82

7-61

29-05

78-38

1-035

7

4-7

3-27

8-82

33-84

91-29

1-040

8

5-4

3*74

10-09

88-90

104-94

1-045

9

6-0

4-21

11-86

43-99

118-71

1-050

10

6-7

4-70

12-68

49-36

133-14

1-055

11

7-4

5-17

13-95

54-54

147-17

1-060

12

8-0

5-65

15-24

59-89

161-64

1-065

13

8-7

6-15

16-69

66-60

176-68

1-070

14

9-4

6-63

17-89

70-94

191-42

1-075

15

10-0

7-08

19-10

76-11

205-33

1-080

16

10-6

7-56

20-40

81-65

220-32

1-085

17

11-2

8-08

21-67

87-13

235-12

1-090

18

11-9

8-48

22-88

92-43

249-39

1-095

19

12-4

8-90

24-01

97-46

262-91

1-100

20

13-0

9-31

25-12

102-41

276-82

1-105

21

13-6

9-80

26-44

108-29

292-16

1-110

22

14-2

10-27

27-71

114-00

307-68

1-115

23

14-9

10-75

29-00

119-86

323-35

1-120

24

15-4

11-22

80-27

126-66

339-02

1-125

26

16-0

11-67

31-49

131-29

354-26

1-180

26

16-6

12-17

32-83

137-52

370-98

1-185

27

17-0

12-64

34-10

143-46

387-04

1-140

28

17-7

13-08

85-29

149-11

402-31

1-145

29

18-3

18-50

86-42

154-58

417-01

1-150

30

18-8

13-94

37-61

160-81 432-62

1-155

31

19-3

14-34

38-69

165-63

446-87

SODA ASH MANUFACTUBE

173

&. HPfloirio ORAvmns op oomobhtratbd aoiixmottB

OF SOOIXTM CARBOITATB AT 80° O.*

Speclflc
gravity
at8<r.

Degrees
Twaddell.

Degrees
Baum^.

Per cent.

by weight.

1 cubic metre oontalns
kllog.

NasiOOs.

»•

NajiOOs.

NagOOs,
10 aq.

1-310

62

34-2

28-08

75-76

367-85

992-46

1-306

61

33-7

27-66

74-63

360-96

973-92

1-300

60

33-3

27-25

73-52

354-25

955-76

1-295

59

32-8

26*84

72-41

347-58

937-71

1-290

58

32-4

26-42

71-28

340-82

919-51

1-286

57

32-0

26-00

7015

334-10

901-43

1-280

56

31-5

25-60

69-07

327-68

884*10

1-275

55

31-1

25-18

67-94

321-05

866-24

1-270

54

30-6

24-74

66-75

314-20

847-73

1-265

53

30-2

24-28

65-51

307-14

828-70

1-260

52

29-7

23-85

64-35

300-51

810*81

1-255

51

29-3

23-43

63-21

294-05

793-29

1-250

50

28-8

23-03

62-14

287-88

776-75

1-245

49

28-4

22-63

61-06

281-74

760-20

1-240

48

27-9

22-22

59-95

275-53

743-38

1-235

47

27-4

21-80

58-82

269*23

726-43

1-230

46

26-9

21-37

57-66

262-85

709-22

1-225 •

45

26-4

20-96

56-55

256*76

692-73

1-220

44

26-0

20-55

55-44

250-71

676-37

1-216

43

25-5

20-12

54-28

244-46

659-50

1-210

42

25-0

19-67

53-07

238-01

642-15

1-205

41

24*5

19-26

51-96

232-08

626-12

1-200

40

24-0

18-83

50-80

225-96

609-60

1-195

39

23-5

18-42

49-70

220-42

594-22

1-190

38

23-0

18-00

48-56

214-20

577-84

1-185

37

22-5

17-55

47-35 1

207*97

561-10

1-180

36

22-0

17-09

46-11

201-66

544-10

1-175

35

21-4

16-62

44-84

195-29

526-87

1-170

34

20-9

16-16

43-60 1

189-07

610-12

1-165

33

20-3

15-70

42-36

182-91

493-49

1-160

32

19-8

15-25

41-14

176-90

477-22

1-155

81

19-3

14-84

40-04

171-40

462-46

1-150

30

18-8

14-42

38-91

165-83

447-47

1-145

29

18-3

14-02

37-83

160*53

433-15

1-140

28

17-7

13-61

36-72

155-15

418-61

* This temperature has been specially chosen, because the higher concentrations
of sodiom carlMmate cannot exist in solution at lower temperatures.

174 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

8. iNniinuroB of tbmpbbatuiib on thb spboifio

O'C.

6%

10%

16%

20%

25%

80%

86%

40%

45%

60%

• • •

• « •

• • •

• • •

1-285

1-282

1-279

1-276

1-273

• • • 1 • « •

• • •

• • •

1-274

1-271

1-267

1-265

1-262

• • •

• • «

• • •

• • •

1-263

1-260

1-257

1-254

1-261

• • •

• • •

• • •

• • •

1-252

1-250

1-247

1-244

1-240

« • •

• • «

• • •

• • •

1-241

1-239

1-236

1-233

1-230

• • •

1-240

1-238

1-236

1-234

1-232

1-230

1-227

1-224

• • •

1-230

1-228

1-225

1-223

1-221

1-219

1-216

1-213

• • •

1-220

1-218

1-215

1-213

1-210

1-208

1-205

1-201

• • •

1-210

1-208

1-206

1-204

1-201

1-199

1-196

1-192

• • t

• • •

1-200

1-198

1-196

1-194

1-192

1-189

1-186

1-183

1-198

1-195

1-193

1-190

1-188

1-186

1-184

1-182

1-179

1-176

1-173

1-188

1-185

1-183

1-180

1-178

1-176

1-174

1-172

1-169

1-166

1-163

1-177

1-174

1-172

1-170

1-168

1-166

1-164

1-162

1-160

1-157

1-154

1-166

1-164

1-162

1-160

1-158

1-156

1-154

1-152

1-150

1-148

1-145

1-156

1-154

1-162

1-150

1-148

1-146

1-144

1-142

1-139

1-136

1-134

1-146

1-144

1-142

1-140

1-138

1-136

1-134

1-132

1-129

1-126

1-123

1-136

1-134

1-132

1-130

1-128

1-126

1-124

1-122

1-120

1-117

1-114

1-126

1-124

1-122

1-120

1-118

1-116

1-114

1-112

1-110

1-107

1-104

1-116

1-114

1-112

1-110

1-108

1-106

1-104

1-102

1-100

1-098

1-095

1-106

1-104

1-102

1-100

1-098

1-096

1-094

1-092

1-090

1-088

1-086

1-096

1-094

1-092

1-090

1-088

1-086

1-084

1-082

1-080

1-078

1-075

1-086

1-084

1-082

1-080

1-078

1-076

1-074

1072

1-070

1-068

1-065

1-075

1-073

1-071

1-070

1-069

1-067

1-065

1-063

1-061

1-059

1-056

1-064

1-063

1-061

1-060

1-059

1-057

1-056

1-054

1-052

1-050

1-047

1-053

1-052

1-051

1-050

1-049

1-048

1-046

1-044

1-042

1-040

1-037

1-043

1-042

1-041

1-040

1-039

1-038

1-036

1-034

1-032

1-030

1-027

1-033

1-032

1-031

1-030

1-029

1-028

1-026

1-024

1-022

1-020

1-017

1-023

1-022

1-021

1-020

1-019

1-018

1-016

1-014

1-012

1-010

1-007

1-013

1-012

1-011

1-010

1-009

1-008

1-006

1-004

1*002

1-000

0-997

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE

175

GRAVITIES OF SOLUTIONS OF SODIUM OARBONATB.

66°.

60'.

65%

70°.

76*.

80\

86°.

90°.

96°.

100°

1-270
1-259
1-248
1-237
1-226

1-220
1-209
1-198
1-189
1-179

169
•160
•151
•142
•131

1-120
1-111
1-101
1-092
1-082

1-072
1-062
1-053
1-044
1-034

1-024
1-014
1-004
0-994

1-267
1-256
1-245
1-234

1-228

•

1-217
1-206
1-194
1-185
1-176

1-666
1-156
1-147
1-139
1-128

118
•108
•098
•089
•079

-070
-060
•051
-041
•032

1-022
1-012
1-002
0-992

1-264
1-253
1-241
1*230
1-220

1-213
1-202
1191
1182
1-172

1163
1153
1144
1136
1125

115
105
•095
■086
•076

•067
•057
•048
•038
■029

1-019
1*009
0-999
0-989

1-260
1-249
1-237
1-227
1-216

1
1
1
1
1

210
199
188
178
168

1159
1150
1141
1133
1122

1112
1-102
1-092
1-083
1-073

1-064
1-054
1-045
1-036
1^027

1-017
1-007
0-997
0-987

1-256
1-244
1-233
1-224
1-213

1-206
1195
1-184
1175
1165

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

156
147
138
•130
119

•109
099
089
080
070

1^061
1-052
1-043
1-032
1-024

1-015
1-006
0-995
0-985

1-252
1-240
1-229
1-220
1-210

1-203
1192
1181
1172
1162

1-153
1144
1135

1
1

126
116

1106
1^096
1^086
1-077
1-067

1-058
1-049
1-040
1-030
1-021

1-012
1-002
0-992
0-982

1-247
1-236
1-226
1-217
1-207

1-199
1188
1178
1-168
1158

1149
1-140
1-131
1-123
1-113

1-103
1-093
1-083
1-074
1-064

1-055
1-046
1-037
1-028
1-019

1-010
1-000
0-990
0-980

1-243

1-238

1-232

1-228

1-222

1-218

1-213

1-210

1-204

1-200

1195

1-191

1-184

1181

1174

1171

1165

1-162

1155

1152

1146

1143

1137

1134

1128

1-125

1120

1-117

1110

1-107

•100
•090
•080
•071
•061

1-052
1-043
1-034
1-025
1-016

1-007
0-997
0-987
0-977

•097
•087
•077
•068

1-058

1-049
1-040
1-032
1-023
1-014

1-005
0-995
0-985
0-975

1-234
1-224
1-215

1
1-

1-
V
1'
1'
1'

1'

1"

1

1

1

1
1
1
1

206
197

188
178
168
159
149

140
131
•122
114
104

-094
084
074
065

1-055

1-046
1-038
1-029
1-020
1-011

1-003
0-993
0-983
0-973

176 THE TfiCHNlCAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

H. — Analysis of Oommeroial Soda Adh.

When merely the^ available alkali (alkalimetrical degree) has
to be ascertamed, it is convenient to weigh out 15'5 g., to dissolve
in a 500 c.c flask, and to tcJce for each test 50 c.c. (in Germany,
without filtering ; in England, sometimes with, sometimes with-
out). In this case each cubic centimetre of standard acid indi-
cates 0*03105 g. ]Sra2p, or just 2 per cent, of available alkali (Na^O).
The standard acid is normal hydrochloric acid, containing 36'46 g.
Hd per litre, and standardised both with pure sodium carbonate
and with silver nitrate. (Cf, Appendix.) The indicator is either
litmus (in which case the solution has to be boiled for some time)
or more conveniently methyl orange (which is used with oold
solutions).

If the percentage of alkali is to be calculated in terms of
Na^CO^ as is usual in Germany and other countries, 2'6525 g. is
weighed out, dissolved, and titrated (without filtering) with
normal hydrochloric acia, each c.c. of which indicates 2 per cent.
NajCOs ui this case. In Germany the samples are i£;nited before
weighing, and the percentage is always stated for soda ash in this
dry state.

For a complete analysis of commercial soda ash 50 g. are dis-
solved in warm water.

1. The InsolMe Residue is filtered and washed, the filtrate
and washings are diluted up to 1 litre, and the following tests are
made with this solution.

2. Sodivm Carbonate is found by titrating 20 c.c. (equal to 1
g. of soda ash) with normal HCl, deducting the amount of No. 3.
That of No. 4 is always too small to consider in this case.

3. Sodium Hydroxide is estimated by barium chloride, accord-
ing to p. 166.

4. Sodivm Sulphide, — 100 c.c. (equal to 5 g. of ash) are
titrated with ammoniacal silver nitrate (cf. Appendix), containing
13'810 g. Ag per litre, and indicating 0*005 g. NagO per cubic
centimetre. Heat the soda liquor to boiling, add ammonia, and
run in the silver solution from a burette divided in A c.c, till no
further black precipitate of Ag^S is produced. In order to
observe this more accurately the u^uid is filtered towards the end
of the operation, and the titration is continued if necessary. This
filtration is repeated several times. Each cubic centimetre of
silver solution mdicates 0*1 per cent, of Na2S in the alkali.

5. Sodium SuljMte, — Acidulate 100 c.c. (e(][ual to 5 g. soda
ash) with acetic acid, add starch solution, and titrate with iodine
till a blue colour appears. A decinormal iodine solution corre-

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE 177

sponds to 0*006308 g. Na^SOs per cubic centimetre (in this case
0'126 per cent.). The solution mentioned on p. 166, of 3*249 g.
iodine per litre, corresponds to 0*001613 g. Na^SOs (^ this case
0*0323 per cent.). From this should be deducted the amount
corresponding to test No. 4 ; 1 c.c. of the silver solution can be
regarded as equal to 1*3 c.c. of the decinormal, or equal to 5*0
c.c. of the weaker iodine solution.

6. Sodivm Svlpha/te, — Acidulate 20 c.c. of the solution (equal to
1 g. soda ash) with hydrochloric acid, precipitate with barium
chloride, as on p. 110, and weigh the BaS04, o^ which 1*000 part is
equal to 0*6089 part Na2S04.

7. Sodium Chloride, — Neutralise 20 c.c. (e5[ual to 1 g. soda ash)
exactly with nitric acid, preferably by addmg exactly as many
cubic centimetres normal nitric acid from a burette as had been
used in test No. 1 ; then add neutral potassium chromate, and
titrate wilJi decinormal silver nitrate as described on p. 145. Each
cubic centimetre of this corresponds to 0*00585 g. NaCl.

8. /row.— Neutralise 100 c.c. (equal to 5 g. soda ash) with
sulphuric acid free from iron, reduce with zinc free from iron
(p. 142), and titrate w^th ^ normal potassium permanganate, of
which each cubic centimetre corresponds to 0*002795 g. Fe, or in
this case 0*056 per cent. Fe.

9. Sodivm Silicate is not present in appreciable quantities in
ordinary soda ash. but always m the ash recovered from the liquor
used in the manufacture of wood " cellulose." It is estimated by
acidulating 20 c.c. (equal to 1 g. soda ash) with HCl, filtering the
SiOft drying, and igniting. 1 g. Si02= 2*028 g. NagSiOg.

10. TaMe f(yr Comparing French, Germa/n, and English Com-
mercial Alkalimetrical Degrees,— The French or Descroizilles
degrees mean the quantity of real sulphuric acid, SO4H2, neutral-
ised by 100 parts of soda ash. The (jerman degrees express the
available alkali in terms of sodium carbonate, Na20O3. In
England some works invoice in real ijer cent, of soda, Na20, as
found in the first column of the following tables. The Newcastle
test is based on the equivalent 32 for Na20, or 59*26 degrees for
pure Na2C03, and invoices fractions of de^ees.

[Commercial Alkalimetrical Degrees,

M

178 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

FRBNOH, OBBKAN, AND MKQUSB OOMMHBOIAL

m

B«a

Gorman

New.

oaatle

degreea.

Real

Oerman

New-
castle
degrees.

Soda.

degrees.

Frenoh
degreea.

Soda.
NaaO.

degrees.
NasCQs-

French
degrees.

0-6

0-85

0-61

0*79

18

30*78

18*23

28-45

1

1-71

1-01

1-58

18*6

31-63

18-74

29-24

1-6

2-56

1*62

2*37

19

32*49

19*25

30*03

2

3-42

2*03

3*16

19-6

33*34

19-76

30*82

2-6

4-27

2-64

3-95

20

84-20

20-26

81*61

3

6-13

3*04

4-74

20-6

35-06

20*77

32-40

3-6

5*98

3-55

5*53

21

35-91

21-27

33*19

4

6*84

4-05

6*32

21-6

36-76

21-78

33*98

4-5

7-69

4-66

7-11

22

37-62

22*29

34-77

5

8*66

6-06

7*90

22*6

88*47

22*80

35-56

5-6

9*40

5-67

8*69

23

39-33

23*30

36*35

6

10-26

6-08

9-48

23*5

40-18

23*81

37*14

6-5

11*11

6*69

10-27

24

41*04

24-31

37*93

7

11-97

7-09

11-06

24*5

41-89

24*82

38*72

7-5

12*82

7-60

11*85

26

42-76

26*32

39*61

8

13*68

8-10

12*64

25*5

43-60

26*83

40-30

8-6

14-53

8-61

13*43

26

44*46

26*34

41*09

9

16-39

9-12

14-22

26-5

45-31

26-86

41*88

9-6

16-24

9-63

15*01

27

46-17

27-36

42-67

10

17-10

10*13

16*81

27*6

47-02

27-86

43*46

10-6

17*95

10*64

16*60

28

47*88

28*36

44*25

11

18*81

11*14

17*39

28*6

48-73

28-37

46*04

11-5

19*66

11*65

18*18

29

49-69

29*38

46*83

12

20*52

12-17

18-97

29*6

60-44

29-89

46*62

12-5

21-37

12-68

19-76

30

51*29

30-39

47-42

13

22-23

13-17

20-65

30-6

62-14

30-90

48*21

13-6

23*08

13*68

21*34

31

63-00

31*41

49*00

14

23*94

14-18

22-13

31*6

63*85

31-91

49*79

14-6

24-79

14-69

22*92

32

54*71

32*42

50*88

16

26-65

15*19

23*71

32-6

56*66

32*92

61*37

15-5

26*50

16*70

24*50

33

56*42

33*43

62*16

16

27*36

16*21

25*29

33-5

57*27

33*94

52*95

16-5

28-21

16*73

26*08

34

58*13

34*44

53-74

17

29*07

17-22

26*87

34*5

68*98

34*96

54-53

17-6

29*92

17-73

27-66

1

35

59*84

35*46

6^*32

SODA ASH MANUFACTUllE

I7d

. OntKAN, AMD BiraUSH (JOMMBBOIAL ATiKATiT-
MSnUOAIi

Real

German

New-

castle

degrees.

Real

German

New-

castle

degrees.

Soda.
Na^jO.

degrees.
Na^Os.

French
degrees.

Soda.
NagO.

degrees.
NaaOO,.

French
degrees.

35-5

60-69

35*96

66-11

53

90-61

53-70

83-77

36

61-56

86-47

56-90

1 53-5

91-47

64-20

84*56

36-5

62-40

36-98

57-69

54

92-32

54-71

85*35

37

63-26

37*48

58-48

54-5

93*18

56-22

86*14

37-5

64-11

37-98

59-27

55

94-03

66-72

86-93

38

64-97

38*50

60-06

55-5

94*89

56*23

87-72

38-5

65-82

39*00

60-85

56

95*74

56*74

88-52

39

66*68

39*51

61-64

66-5

96*60

57*24

89-31

39-5

67*53

40-02

62-43

67

97*45

57*76

90-10

40

68*39

40-52

63-22

57-5

1

98-81

58*26

90-89

40-5

69*24

41*03

64-01

1
' 58

99*16

58-76

91*68

41

70*10

41*64

64-81

58-6

100-02

59-27

92*47

41-6

70*95

42-04

66-60

69

100*87

59*77

93*26

42

71-81

42-55

66*39

69-5

101-78

60*28

94-05

42*5

72*66

43*06

67-18

60

102-58

60*79

94-84

43

73*52

43*57

67*97

60-5-

103*44

61*80

95-63

43-5

74*37

44*07

68*76

61

104*30

61*80

96*42

44

75*23

44*58

69*55

61*5

105*15

62*31

97*21

44-5

76*08

45*08

70*34

62

106*01

62*82

98*00

45

76*94

45-69

71*13

62-5

106*86

63*32

98-79

45-5

77*80

46-10

71*92

63

107*72

63*83

99-58

46

78*66

46-60

72*71

63*5

108-67

64-33

100-37

46*5

79-51

47*11

73*50

64

109*48

64-84

101*16

47

80-37

47-62

74-29

64*5

110*28

65-35

101-96

47-5

81*22

48-12

75-08

65

111*14

65*85

102-74

48

82*07

48*63

75*87

65*5

111*99

66-36

103-53

48-5

82*93

49-14

76-66

66

112*85

66-87

104-32

49

83*78

49*64

77-45

66-5

113*70

67-37

105*11

49-6

84*64

50*16

78-24

67

114*56

67-88

105*90

50

85-48

50*66

79-03

67-5

115*41

68-39

106*69

50-5

86-34

51-16

79-82

68

116-27

68-89

107-48

51

87-19

51-67

80-61

68-5

117-12

69-40

108*27

51-5

88*05

52-18

81-40

69

117-98

69-91

109-06

52

88-90

52-68

82-19

69-5

118-83

70-41

109-85

52-6

89*76

53-19

82-98

70

119-69

70*92

110-64

\

180 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

FBUrOH, aBRMAN, AND BNaZiISH OOBCICBBOIAZ. AT.KAT.T-

MBTRIOAIi DSaaaaS— CofUtntMd

Real

German

New-
castle
degrees.

Real

German

New.

castle

degrees.

Boda.
NagO.

degrees.
Nsj^Os.

French
degrees.

Soda.
NagO.

degrees.
NaaCOg.

French
degrees*

70-5

120-53

71-43

111-43

75-5

129-08

76-49

119-34

71

121-39

71-93

112-23

76

129-94

77-00

120-13

71-5

122-24

72-44

113-02

76-5

130-79

77-61

120-92

72

123-10

72-95

113-81

77

131-65

78-01

121-71

72-5

123-95

73-45

114-60

77-5

132-50

78-52

122-60

73

124-81

73-96

116-39

1

73-6

126-66

74-47

116-18

74

126-62

74-97

116-97

'

74-5

127-37

76-48

117-76

75

128-23

75-99

118-56

1

I. — Sulphur Recovery (Chance Process).

1. Estimation of Sulphur as Sulphides in Vat Wa^te. — ^The
apparatus consists of a small flask fitted with a stopcock funnd
and outlet tube connected with two Mohr's potasn bulbs, the
first one being empty, the decond containing a strong solution of
caustic potash. (In lieu of Mohr's bulbs a tube of the shai)e shown
in Fig. 8, p. 120 can be employed with great advantage.) It is
preferable to connect the last potash bulb to an aspirator or
Bunsen pump, to produce a slignt vacuum. About 2 g. of vat
waste are put into the flask, and a sufficient quantity of water is
added. Tnen hydrochloric acid, diluted with its volume of water,
is run in from the funnel ^raduall^. After the decomposition
has ceased, the solution is boiled, until the whole of the gases are
displaced by steam, most of the steam condensing in the first
empty potash bulbs. When enough steam has been produced to
bring the first bulb of the second set, filled with potash solu-
tion, up to boiling, the tap of the funnel is opened, and the
apparatus allowed to cool down. The potash solution is then
transferred to a ^ or | litre flask, made up to the mark, an ali(][uot
part taken, diluted with a large quantity of previously boiled
water (free from air), neutralised with acetic acid, and titrated
with decinormal iodine, each c.c. of which indicates 0*001603 g. S.

2. Sulphur as Sulphide in Ca>rbonat€d Mud. — About 6 g. are
taken for analysis ; otherwise the test is conducted just like the
preceding one.

3. Sulphide'Sulphur-\' Carbonic Acid in Vat Waste, — This test

SODA ASH MANUFACTURE 181

(which is only exceptionally made) is carried out in a small flask,
fitted with stopcock fnnnel, connected with a U-tube containing
sodium sulphate to absorb any traces of HCl passing over, and a
suiBUcient number of chloride of calcium tubes to thoroughly dry
the gases. To the last of these are connected two weighed x)otash
bulbs containing a strong solution of caustic x>otash, followed by
weighed CaCl2 tubes. The whole apparatus being connected, 2 g.
of vat waste are put into the flask, and some water added. A
current of nitrogen is then passed through the apx)aratus to dis-

Elace the air. [The nitrogen for this purpose is convenientlv made
y passing lime-kiln gases through a solution of caustic soda, dien
through a ted-hot tube containing bright copper clippings to
absorb any oxygen, and finally through solutions of caustic x)otash
and barium hydroxide.] The vat waste is then decomposed by
hydrochloric acid, and the contents of the flask boilea. After-
wards a current of nitrogen is passed through the apparatus for a
considerable time to displace tne H2S and CO2 in the flask and
drying tubes. The potash bulbs and the last drying tubes are
reweighed, the increase showing the amount of H2S-I-CO2 in the
vat waste employed. The x)otash solution is then transferred to a
measuring flask, and the H2S estimated as described in 1 . Deduct-
ing the amount from the increase of weight of the absorbing
apparatus, we find the amount of CO2 present.

4. Svlphur as Stdphide in SoltUions of Calcium or Sodium
Sulpht/drates a/iui Sulphides, — 10 c.c. are diluted to 250, and of
this liciuid a oonyenient x)ortion is taken out, largely diluted
with air-free water, acidulated with acetic acid, and titrated with
iodine, as in test 1. If thiosulphates are present, they are esti-
mated as in 6, and deducted, if polysulphides are present, the
sulphur which would be precipitated by an acid is not estimated
by this method, but only that which would be liberated as HgS
by an acid.

5. Soda, Lime, and Thiosvlphate in Sulphur Liquors.-^ln one
sample of the liquor, say 5 cc, estimate the total alkalinity, i,€,
Na20+CaO, by standard hydrochloric acid and methyl orange.
Take another sample, say 50 c.a, pass pure CO2 in till lead paper
shows the absence of all sulphides, boil to decompose calcium
bicarbonate, dilute with water to 500 c.c, allow the precipitate to
settle, take 50 c.c. of the clear liquor and titrate again, the
alkalinity this time being due to Na2P only. CaO is found from
the difference between the two titrations.

Another sample of the carbonated liquor is titrated with deci-
normal iodine for thiosulphate. Each c.c. of iodine solution
indicates 0*006412 g. S as thiqstdphate.

6. Lime-kiln Gases, — CO2 is estimated by an Orsat apparatus,
or a Honigmann burette, or any other similar apparatus. When
using an Orsat apparatus, the test for oxygen can be made as
on p. 98.

182 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

7. Gas from Gas-holder,

(a) Hydrogen Stdphide+ Carbon Dioxide are estimated by an
Orsat apparatus or a Honigmann burette, etc.

(b) Hydrogen Stdphide Only. — ^A vide-mouihed bottle of
known capacity, holding about 500 c.c.,^ is fitted with a rubber
cork and two tubes, one nearly reachinf to the bottom, the
other ending just below the cork, both of them wi^ stopcocks
outside. Gas is passed through for some time, till it has entirely
displaced the air in the bottle. Then 20 or 25 cc. of standard
potash solution is run in from a pipette, throu^ one of the stop-
cocks, the bottle is well shaken, until the whole of the HgS and
CO2 are absorbed, the contents of the bottle are poured into a
measuring flask, the bottle is rinsed out completely, and the total
liquid made up to the mark.

An ali(]|uot portion is taken out, largely diluted with jare-
viously boiled water, acidified with acetic acid, and the B^S
estimated by iodine. In this case a solution of iodine is employed
containing 11*43 g. I per litre, each co. of which indicates 1 c.c.
of gaseous H^ at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure. For somewhat
exact estimations^ the temperature, jsressure, and vapour tension
have to be taken mto account ; but it is unnecessary to observe
the thermometer and barometer, and to make any complicated
calculations, if a Lunge's gas-volumeter be used (p. 12^). In
this case the level-tube, C, of the instrument is placed so that
the mercury stands at the same height in C as in the reduction
tube B ; the height of mercury in the latter is read off, which
gives the volume occupied by 100 c.c. of dr^ air of O"" and 760
mm. under the prevailing atmospheric conditions ; the number of
c.c. of iodine solution, multiplied by 100, is divided by this figure,
and thus the correction of the normal volume effected.

8. Exit Gooses from the Clatu Kilns, — ^These contain SO2 and
H2S. Both these gases, on being passed through iodine solution,
produce 2HI for each atom of S ; but whilst H2S does not
further increase the acidity of the solution, SO2 produces its
equivalent of H2SO4. Hence SO2 and H2S are measured together
by the amount of iodine converted into HI, and SO2 by the
acidity present after the HI has been saturated with caustic soda.
Since the current of gases carries away some iodine from the
decinormal solution, the gases must be passed through caustic
soda, or, better, through sodium thiosulphate, to intercept
this iodine. The manipulation is hence as follows : Aspirate one
or more litres of the gases through 50 c.c. of decinormal iodine
solution, contained in a bulb apparatus (Fig. 6, p. 104), or other
efficient absorbing tubes, followed by another apparatus contain-
ing 50 c.c. of decinormal thiosulphate solution. Empty the
contents of both apparatus into a beaker, and titrate with
decinormal iodine and starch solution, till a blue colour appears.
The number of c.c. of iodine solution used, if multiplied by 0*0016

MANUFACTURE OF SODA 183

g., indicates tlie total sulphur present as SO2 and H^S. Now add
a drop of thiostdphate to discfiarge the blue colour, then a drop
of methyl orange, and decinormal caustic soda from a burette, tiU
the pink colour of the liquid is discharged. The number of c.c. of
caustic soda used, less those of iodine used in the preceding test,
multiplied by 0*0016, indicates the sulphur present as SO2.

VI. MANUFAOTURB OF SODA BT THE
AMMONIA PROOBSS.

A. — Raw MaterialB.

1. Eock Salt, compare p. 146.

2. Brme.—The following determinations are made :—

(a) Specific Gravity y by the hydrometer.

(b) Chlorine, expressed as NaCl. Dilute 10 c.c. to 1 litre and
titrate 10 c.c. of the diluted solution as on p. 145.

(c) /SWp^^.— Dilute 60 c.c. brine to 160 or 200 c.c, add a
little hydrochloric acid, and precipitate with barium chloride as
on p. 110.

(d) Ferric Oxide a/nd Alvmina.—To 500 c.c. brine add a little
nitric add, heat to SO"", precipitate with an excess of ammonia,
digest for haJf an hour at SO**, filter, and wash well. As a check,
redissolye the precipitate in hydrochloric acid and reprecipitate
it by ammonia.

Li the filtrate lime and magnesia may be estimated as on
p. 146.

(e) BicarhonateB of Iron, Lime, a/nd Magnesia. — Destroy the
bicarbonates as such by prolongCKi boiling of 600 cc, replacing
the water driven 0% filter the precipitate formed, wash it, dissolye
it in hj(rdrodiloric acid, and in the solution estimate the iron by
precipitation with NH3, and lime and magnesia in the ordinary
way.

3. ConcerUra,ted Gas Liquor or Stdphate of Ammonia, cf.
Chapter XI., pp. 215 and 217.

4. Limestone, cf p. 165.

5. Quick Lime, cf p. 156.

6. Coals or Coke, cf p. 95.

B. — Tests made during the Process of Manufacture.

1. Ammonia^xd Brine from the receivers,

(a) Sodivm Chloride. — ^Acidulate with nitric acid and estimate
the NaCl by AgNOs gravimetrically, or yolumetrically in the
neutral or famtly alkaline solution as on p. 145,

184 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

(b) Ammomia^ free and combined, — Dilute 10 c.c. to 100 c.c.
and boil in a distilling flask until all the free ammonia and
anmionium carbonate Has been expelled; absorb this in a
measured volume of normal sulphuric acid and titrate back. To
the solution remaining in the flask add caustic soda solution, distil
a^in, and absorb this ** combined " ammonia also in sulphuric
acid. (7/ Chapter XI., p. 215.

2. CarboncUors. — Free and combined NHs are estimated as
in No. 1 (b).

3. Mother Liquor. — ^Estimate: —

(a^ NHs, ^1*^6 9^^ combined, as above,
(b) Undecomposed NaCl^ by evaporating 10 c.c. in a platinum
dish, heating till all NH4CI is expelled, and weighing.

4. Crude Bicarbonate, — ^Estimate : —

(a) The Alkalimetrical Degree^ as on p. 165.

(b) CO^ as on p. 169.

(c) Moisture, by igniting and allowing for the COa present as
bicarbonate and found in (6).

5. Distillation of Ammonia : —

(a) NH3, free and combined, in the mother liquor as in No.
10)).

(b) Milk of lime as on p. 157.

(c) Excess of Hme in the stills. Boil 100 c.c. until all NH3
has been expelled, add a little ammonium sulphate and boil again.
The NHs iiow set free, which corresponds to the excess of lime, is
absorbed in standard sulphuric acid and titrated.

6. Lime- Kiln Gases. — Estimate the CO2 as on p. 97.

G. — Gommeroial Products.

1. Soda ashy as on p. 176.

2. Commercial Bicarbonate is tested like the crude. No. 1, or
very accurately by heating in an air-bath to 270' and receiving
the gas in a Luuge's gas- volumeter, p. 139 (compare Lunge,
Z, angeiv, Chem., 1897, p. 522).

VII. CAUSTIC SODA.

A. — Oaiistic Liquor.

(a) Test for availahle alkali and sodium carbonate (as described
p. 165). An exact estimation of CO2, which is rarely necessary in
this case, could be made by expelling it with dilute sulphuric acid,
and absorbing it in soda lime, or, preferably, by Lunge ana
Rittener's method, p. 169.

CAUSTIC SODA

185

(b) sPBomo ORAvmas of soiiXTTioms of soDroM

HTDBOXZDB AT 16^ O.

1 cb.m. contains kg.

Specific

Degrees

Degrees

Percent.

Percent.

Gravity.

Twaddell.

BaumA.

Na^.

NaOH.

JSla^,

NaOH.

1-000

0-00

1-006

1

0-7

0*83

0-48

8-81

4-82

1-010

2

1-4

0-67

0-86

6-77

8-69

1-015

8

2-1

0-99

1-28

10-06

12-99

1-020

4

2-7

1-81

1-69

13-86

17-24

1-025

6

8-4

1-65

2-18

16-91

21-88

1-080

6

4-1

2-02

2*60

20-81

26-78

1-085

7

4-7

2-87

3-06

24-58

81-67

1-040

8

5-4

2-71

3-50

28-18

86-40

1-045

9

6-0

8-02

8-90

81-56

40-76

1-050

10

6-7

3-36

4-84

85*28

46-67

1-056

11

7-4

3*69

4-76

88-98

50-22

1*060

12

8-0

4*08

5-20

42-72

55-12

1-065

13

8-7

4-89

6-67

46-75

60-89

1-070

14

9-4

4-75

6-13

50-88

65-69

1-075

16

10-0

5-10

6-58

54-88

70-74

1-080

16

10-6

5-46

7-05

58-97

76-14

1-085

17

11-2

5-81

7-60

68-04

81-88

1-090

18

11-9

6-16

7-95

6714

86-66

1-095

19

12-4

6-50

8-39

71-18

91-87

1-100

20

18-0

6-81

8-78

74-91

96-58

1-105

21

18-6

7-15

9-23

79-01

101-99

1-110

22

14-2

7-50

9-67

83-25

107-84

1-116

23

14-9

7-84

10-12

87-42

112-84

1-120

24

15-4

8-18

10-66

91-62

118-27

1-125

25

16-0

8-57

11-06

96-41

124-48

1-130

26

16-5

8-95

11-55

101-14

180-52

1-185

27

17-0

9-82

12-02

105-78

136-43

1-140

28

17-7

9-68

12-49

110-36

142-39

1-145

29

18-3

10-03

12-94

114-84

148-16

1-150

30

18-8

10-34

13-34

118-91

158-41

1-155

31

19-3

10-67

18-76

128-24

168-93

1-160

82

19-8

11-00

14-19

127-60

164-60

1-165

33

20-3

11-83

14-62

181-99

170-82 .

1-170

34

20-9

11-67

16-06

136-64

176-20

1-175

35

21-4

12-04

15-58

141-47

182-48

1-180

36

22-0

12-40

16-00

146*82

188-80

1-185

37

22-5

12-75

16-46

151-09

194-93

1-190

38

28-0

13-11

16-91

156-01

201-23

1195

39

23-5

13-46

17-36

160-86

207-46

1-200

40

24-0

13-80

17-81

165-60

218-72

1-206

41

24-5

14-15

18-26

170-51

220-03

186 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

(h) SPBOinO

OF SOIfUnONS OF SODIUM

HTDROZIDB AT 15'' O.— ConttfitMdL

Specittc
Gravity.

Degrees
Twaddell.

Degrees

Percent.
Na^.

Per cent.
NaOH.

1 cb.m. contains kg.

NajjO.

NaOH.

1-210

42

25-0

14-60

18-71

176-46

226*39

1-216

43

25-6

14-87

19-18

180-67

233-04

1-220

44

26-0

16*28

19-66

186-81

239*73

1-226

46

26-4

16-69

20-12

190-98

246-47

1-230

46

26-9

16-97

20-60

196-48

263-88

1-236

47

27-4

16-30

21-08

201*31

269-72

1-240

48

27-9

16-64

21-47

206-34

266-23

1-246

49

28-4

16-97

21-90

211-28

272-66

1-260

60

28-8

17-31

22-33

216-38

279*18

1-266

61

29-8

17-65

22-77

221-51

286*76

1-260

52

29-7

18-01

23-23

226-93

292*70

1-266

63

80-2

18-35

23-68

232-13

299-55

1-270

64

80-6

18-70

24-18

237-62

306-45

1-276

66

81-1

19-05

24-68

242*89

313-40

1-280

66

81-6

19-41

26-04

248-45

320-51

1-286

67

32-0

19-77

26-50

254-04

327-68

1-290

68

32-4

20-12

25-96

259-55

334-88

1-296

59

32-8

20-47

26-41

265*09

342-01

1-300

60

33-3

20-81

26-85

270-63

349-05

1-805

61

33-7

21-20

27-35

276-66

366*92

1-310

62

34-2

21-59

27-85

282-83 '

364*83

1-315

63

34-6

21-97

28-34

288-91

372-67

1-320

64

35-0

22-35

28-83

295-02

380-56

1-325

65

36-4

22-73

29-82

801-17

388-40

1-330

66

35-8

23-10

29-80

307*23

396-34

1-835

67

36-2

23-47

30-28

313-32

404-24

1-340

68

36-6

23-83

30-74

319-32

411-92

1-345

69

37-0

24-18

31-20

325-22

419*64

1-360

70

37-4

24-61

31-75

332-24

428*63

1-356

71

37-8

25-02

32-28

339-02

437-39

1-360

72

38-2

25-42

32-79

345-71

445*94

1-366

73

38-6

25-78

33*26

361-90

464-00

1-370

74

39-0

26-14

38-73

358-12

462*10

. 1-875

75

39-4

26-52

34-22

364-65

470*63

1-380

76

39-8

26-90

34-71

371-22

479*00

1-385

77

40-1

27-28

35-20

377-83

487-52

1-390

78

40-5

27-66

35-68

384-47

496*95

1«395

79

40-8

28-02

36-16

390-88

604-29

1-400

80

41-2

28-42

36*67

397-88

613-38

1-405

81

41-6

28-81

37-17

404-78

622*24

1-410

82

49.-0

29-18

37-65

411*44

530-87

1-415

83

42-3

29*58

38*16

418*56

539-96

CAUSTIC SODA

187

(6) 8PB0IFI0 ORAVrrCBS OF SOLUTIONS OF SODroM
HTDROXZDB AT IS"* O.—GorUiniied.

1 ob.m. oontoini kg.

Specific
Gntvitgr.

Degrees
Twaddell.

Degxees

Per oent.

Percent.
NaOH.

NagO.

NftOH.

1-420

84

42-7

29-97

38-67

425*67

649-11

1-426

86

48-1

80-36

39-17

482-63

558-17

1-480

86

48-4

80-76

39*67

439-72

567-28

1-435

87

48-8

31*14

40*18

446-86

576-58

1-440

88

44-1

31*53

40-68

454-03

685-79

1-446

89

44-4

81*93

41-20

461-39

595-34

1-460

90

44*8

32*32

41-70

468*64

604-66

1-466

91

46-1

32-72

42-22

476-07

614-30

1-460

92

45-4

88-14

42-75

483-84

624*15

1-466

93

45-8

38-64

43*27

491-36

638*91

1-470

94

46-1

33-95

43*80

499-07

643-86

1-476

96

46-4

84*36

44*33

506-81

653-87

1-480

96

46*8

34-76

44*85

514-45

668-78

1-486

97

47-1

35-17

45*37

622*27

673-74

1-490

98

47*4

35-67

45-89

629-99

688*76

1-496

99

47*8

35*98

46*42

637-90

693*98

1 -600

100

48*1

36-38

46*94

545*70

704*10

1-505

101

48*4

36-79

47*47

553*69

714*42

1-510

102

48-7

37-20

48*00

561*72

724-80

1-616

103

49*0

37*61 '

48-63

569*79

736-23

1-520

104

49-4

38-02

49-05

577*90

746-66

1-625

105

49*7

38-42

49-68

585*91

766-10

1-630

106

50-0

38-83

50-10

594-10

766-53

•

188 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

(e) INFLUBNOB OF TBISPBRATURB ON THB SFBOIFIC

O'C.

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

80%

86%

40%

46%

50'.

•

1-M7

1*864

1-862

1*860

1-857

1-855

1*858

1*850

1-848

1*845

1*842

1-857

1*854

1*852

1*850

1-847

1*845

1*848

1*840

1*887

1*885

1*882

1-M7

1*844

1*848

1*840

1-888

1*885

1*888

1*880

1*827

1*885

1*828

1-8M

1*885

1*882

1*886

1*828

1*825

1*888

1*880

1*817

1*815

1*812

1-82S

1-825

1*822

1*820

1-818

1*815

1*818

1*810

1-807

1*805

1-803

1-818

1*815

I'SIS

1*810

1*806

1*806

1*808

1-800

1*297

1*894

1-292

1*806

1*806

1*806

1*800

1*297

1*894

1*898

1-889

1*287

1*884

1*282

1*898

1*295

1*808

1*290

1*887

1*884

1*888

1*279

1*277

1*874

1-27SI

1*888

1*285

1*888

1*280

1*877

1*874

1*878

1*269

1*267

1*864

1*262

1-278

1*275

1*878

1*270

1*267

1*865

1*262

1*260

1*258

1*855

1*262

1*808

1*265

1*868

1*260

1*257

1*855

1*858

1*850

1*248

1*845

1*842

1-257

1*255

1*852

1*250

1*247

1*845

1*848

1*240

1*888

1*885

1*288

1*247

1-245

1*242

1*240

1*287

1*285

1*288

1*280

1*228

1*226

1*228

1*287

1-285

1*282

1*280

1-227

1-224

1*228

1-220

1-218

1*215

1*212

1-227

1-225

1*222

1*220

1*217

1*214

1*812

1*210

1*206

1*205

1-202

1-217

1*215

1*212

1*210

1*207

1-204

1*208

1-200

1*198

1*196

1*192

1-207

1*205

1*202

1*200

1*197

1-195

1*198

1*190

1*188

1*186

1*184

1-197

1-195

1*192

1*190

1*187

1*185

1*188

1*180

1*178

1*176

1*174

1-187

1-185

1*188

1*180

1*177

1*175

1*178

1*170

1*168

1*166

1*164

1-176

1-174

1*172

1-170

1*167

1*165

1*168

1*161

1*158

1*156

1-164

1-166

1164

1*162

1-160

1*157

1*155

1*168

1*161

1*148

1*146

1-144

1-166

1-154

1168

1*150

1*148

1*146

1*144

1*142

1*140

1*187

1-186 1

1-146

1-144

1142

1*140

1*188

1*186

1*184

1^82

1*180

1*127

1*125 1

1*186

1-184

1*182

1*180

1*128

1-126

1*124

1*122

1*120

1*118

1*116

1

1126

1-124

1-122

1*120

1*118

1-116

1*114

1*112

1*110

1*108

1*106

1-116

1118

1*112

1*110

1-108

1*106

1*104

1-102

1-100

1*099

1*097

1-105

1-108

1*102

1*100

1-098

1*096

1*095

1-098

1-092

1-090

1*087

1*094

1-098

1*091

1*090

1-088

1*087

1-086

1*064

1-082

1*080

1*078

1*084

1068

1*081

1*080

1-078

1*077

1-076

1-074

1*072

1*070

1*068

1-074

1-078

1*071

1*070

1*068

1*067

1-066

1-064

1*062

1060

1*068

1

1064

1-068

1*061

1*060

1*068

1*057

1066

1-064

1*052

1*060

1*048

1

1*054

1-058

1*051

1*060

1-048

1*047

1-046

1-044

1*042

1*040

1*088

1*044

1-048

1*041

1*040

1*088

1*087

1086

1*084

1*082

1*080

1*028

1-084

1-088

1*081

1-080

1-028

1*027

1-026

1*024

1*022

1*020

1-018

1*024

1-028

1-021

1-020

1-018

1-017

1-016

1-014

1*012

1*010

1-008

1*014

1-018

1-011

1-010

1-008

1*007

1-006

1-004

1-002

1*000

0-998

CAUSTIC SODA

1^9

aRAVmiDS OF SOLUTIONS OF OAUSTIO SODA.

55".

6(r.

w.

re.

75%

80%

86%

w.

96%

XOO".

1*889
1-880
1-820
1-810
1*800

'289
'279
•269
'259
'250

1-240
1-281
1-221
1-210
1-200

1-191
1-182
1-172
1-162
1-152

142
-182
122
118
108

1-094
1-064
1-075
1-066
1-056

1-046
1-086
1-026
1-016
1-006

0-996

1*886
1-827
1-817
1-807
1-297

286
276
266
256
247

•287
'228
'218
■208
198

1*189
1*180
1*160
1*159
1*149

1-189
1*180
1*120
1*110
1*100

1*091
1*082
1*078
1*068
1*058

1*048
1*088
1*028
1-018
1*008

0-998

1-888
1-824
1*814
1-804
1-294

1-284
1-274
1-264
1-254
1-245

1*285
1*226
1-216
1-205
1-195

1-186
1-177
1-166
1-156
1*146

1*186
1-127
1*117
1*107
1*097

1-089
1-079
1*070
1*060
1*050

1*040
1*080
1-020
1*010
1-000

0-990

1-881
1-822
1-812

1*802
1-292

1-281
1*271
1*261
1*261
1*242

1*282
1-228
1-218
1-202
1192

1-184
1-175
1-164
1*158
1*148

1*188
1-124
1*114
1*104
1*094

1*086
1*076
1*067
1*057
1*047

1-087
1-027
1-017
1*007
0-907

0-987

1-828
1-819
1-809
1-299
1-289

278
268
258
248
289

1-229
1*220
1*210
1*200
1*190

1-181
1*172
1*161
1*151
1-140

1-180
1-121
1*111
1*101
1*092

1-088
1*078
1*064
1-054
1-044

1*084
1*024
1*014
1-004
0-994

0-984

1-826

1-828

1-821

1-818

1-816

1*814

1-811

1-808

1-806

1-804

1-801

1-298

1-296

1-294

1-291

1-288

1-286

1*288

1-280

1-277

1-275
1-265
1*255
1-245
1-286

1-226
1*218
1-208
1-198
1-188

'179
-169
-158
-148
188

1-128
1-118
1*108
1-099
1-089

1-080
1-070
1-061
1-051
1-042

1-082
1*021
1-011
1*001
0-991

0-981

1-272
1-262
1-252
1-242
1*288

1-228
1*215
1*205
1*195
1*185

1-176
1-166
1-155
1-145
1-185

1-125
1*116
1-106
1*096
1-066

1-077
1-067
1-058
1-048
1-089

1-0-29
1-019
1-009
0-999
0-989

0-979

1-269
1-259
1*249
1-289
1*281

1-221
1-218
1-208
1*192
1*182

1-122
1*118
1*108
1*098
1-088

1*074
1-064
1*056
1-046
1-086

1-026
1-016
1*006
0*996
0-986

0-976

1-266
1*856
1*246
1-285
1*228

1-218
1-209
1-200
1-190
1-180

1-178

1-171

1-168

1-161

1*158

1*150

1-148

1-140

1-182

1-180

1*120
1*110
1*100
1*090
1*060

-071
-061
'052
-048
■088

1-028
1-018
1-008
0*998
0-988

0-978

1-816
1-806
1*296
1-286
1-274

1-263
1*258
1*242
1-282
1-225

1*215
1-207
1*197
1-187
1*177

1-168
1-158
1*147
1*187
1-127

1-117
1*107
1*097
1*087
1077

1-068
1-058
1*048
1-040
1-080

1-020
1-010
1-000
0-990
0-980

0-970

190 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

B. — Lime Mud.

(a) Sodium as Carbonate and Hydroxide. — Evaporate to dry-
ness witii addition of ammonium carbonate (in order to decompose
the insoluble sodium compounds), repeat this, digest with hot
water, filter, wash, and test Uie filtrate for alkau. The soda maj
have been originally present as NaOH or as Na2C03. It is
expressed in terms of Na.0 (0*03105 g. per cubic centimetre of
normal acid).

(b) Caustic Lime, — ^Titrate as described (p. 156) with normal
hydrochloric acid and phenolphthalein. This indicates NaOH as
well, for which half of the amount found in test (a) may be
assumed without any serious error.

(c) Calcium Carbonate. — Titrate with normal hydrochloric
acid and methyl orange, deduct from the cubic centimetres
required those required in tests (a) and (b).

C— Fished Salts.

Dissolve 50 g. in 1 litre of water, and take 50 c.c. of the solu-
tion for each test.

(a) Available Alkali is tested for with normal hydrochloric
acid.

(b) Sodium Chloride. — Neutralise with nitric acid, preferably
running normal acid out of a burette, and proceed in other
respects as described on p. 166.

(c) Sodium Sulphate. — ^Add a slight excess of hydrochloric acid,
precipitate with barium chloride, and weigh the BaS04 (p. 110).

(d) Sodium Sulphite^ Thiostdphate^ etc. — Add an excess of
bleacning-powder solution, then hydrochloric acid, till the reaction
is acid, and a smell of chlorine is produced (p. 167) ; precipitate
with BaCL, weigh the BaSOi, and deduct the amount found in
test (c). The remainder is calculated as " Na2S04 from oxidisable
sulphur compounds."

D. — Caustic Bottoms.

Dissolve 10 g. in water, and filter. The washed residue is
dried and ignited, and yields : —

(a) Insduhle Matter.— li necessary, the contained iron is
estimated by dissolving in concentrated nydrochloric acid, reduc-
ing with zinc, adding manganous sulphate, and titrating with
permanganate as on p. 113.

ELECTROLYTIC ALKALI LIQUORS 191

(b) Avadlahle Alkali is estimated in the aqueous solutions by
normal hydrochloric acid, usinj^ litmus or lacmoid as indicator.
(Methyl orange is not aysulable m this case, owing to the presence
of alumina.)

(c) Sodium Carbonate is estimated as in commercial soda ash
(p. 176).

B, — Commercial Caustic Soda.

The sample must be very carefully taken. (Cf, Appendix.)
The single pieces must be freed from the outer crust by scraping
it oiF. before weighing. Dissolve 50 g. of the prepared sample
in 1 litre of water, and take aliquot portions for each of the
following tests with a pipette.

(a) AvaUdble Alkali is tested in at least 20 c.c. (equal to 1 g.)
with normal HCl. If the caustic soda contains more than traces
of alumina, methyl orange cannot be used as indicator, but litmus
or lacmoid should be employed. In the case of strong caustic
this is unnecessary.

(b) Sodivm Carbonate is estimated by expelling the CO2 with
dilute sulphuric acid, and absorbing it in soda lime (the pumice
saturated with cupric sulphate is left out here), or by Lunge and
Rittener's x>rocess, p. 169. The quantity of CO^ beiuK so small,
any estimation by oifiFerence yields unsatisfactory results. Very
approximate results can, however, be obtained by titrating first
with phenolphthalein till the pink colour is discharged (when all
Na^COs will have been changed into NaHCOs), noting the amount
of staiidard acid used, adding methyl orange and more standard
acid till the pink colour appears. The acid used in the second
test X 2 indicates Na^COs.

(c) The Table for Comparing English^ French, and Gei-man
Degrees is given on pp. 178 to 180.

Vm. BLBCTROLTTIC ALKALI LIQUORS.

These are analysed just like bleach liquor, p. 162.

1. Hypochlorites are titrated as on p. 157.

2. Free Hypochl(yrous il etc?.— Estimate the bleaching chlorine
as in No. 1. then chloride, chlorate, and other acids on the one
hand, and all bases on the other ; the acidity in excess represents
freeHOCl.

3. Chloral may be estimated as on p. 162, but since there is
but little chlorate m presence of much hypochlorite, it is prefer-

192 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

able to use the direct method of Fresenius, as follows :— To the
sohitioii add an excess of neatral lead acetate solution ; this pio-
daces a precipitate which gradually turns brown, and which
contains a quantity of PbOs corresponding to the chlorate. Allow
to stand for eight or ten hours, until there is no more smell of
chlorine, filter, wash, evaporate the filtrate to a small volnme,
precipitate lead and lime oy means of a little sodium carbonate,
and estimate the chlorate in the filtrate according to p. 162.

In mixtures of chlorate and h^)ochlorite, containing large
quantities of the latter, Ditz and Rnopfelmacher estimate tne
chlorate iodometriciJly, by decomposing it at the ordinary
temperature with concentrated hydrochloric acid and potassium
bromide. Put the substance, together with a sufficient excess of
KBr, into a small flask provided with a hollow glass stopper with
dropping funnel and lateral absorbing vessel for the retention of
bromme vapours. The latter is charged with 10 c.c. of a 5 per
cent, solution of KI. Pour 50 c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid
through the dropping funnel into the flask, allow it to act for an
hour, pour in 300 c.c. water, then 20 c.c. of the solution of KI,
shake well, transfer the contents of the absorbing vessel to the
flask, and titrate the iodine which has been set free by thiosul-
phate. The quantity of chlorate + hypochlorite is thus ascertained,
when there is very much of the latter present, it should be
removed beforehand.

4. Chloride. — ^Employ the solution from No. 1, in which all
hypochlorite has been converted into chloride, with formation of
sodium arsenate, which is an excellent indicator for the titration
of the total chlorides by silver nitrate, j). 146, making no deduction
for any excess of silver nitrate required to produce the colour.
From the quantity of chloride thus found, deduct that which
corresponds to the hypochlorite.

5. Carbon Dioodde, — Destroy the hypochlorite by boiling with
liquor ammonise, free from CO2, expel tne CO2 by a strong acid,
and estimate it as on p. 169.

6. Bcaes, — Convert these into sulphates, by evaporation with
sulphuric acid, and estimate them in the residue by die ordinary
methods.

7. Free Alkali. — ^Add to the solution a little of Merck's
chemically pure hydrogen peroxide, which reacts as follows with
the hypoiilorite ; —

NaOCl + HA = NaCl + H2O + Og.

NaOH and Na2C03 remain unchanged in solution, and are titrated
as on p. 166.

In regard to the estimation of carbon dioxide in electrolytic
chlorine gat, see p. 161.

NITRIC ACID MANUPACTURte m

tJL. NtTRIG AGID MANUFAOTURB.

A. — Oommercial Nitrate of Soda.

According to the custom of the trade, which has held for
many years, no direct estimation of the mtrate is made in the
commercial nitrate of soda exported from Chilis The rule is, to
estimate moisture, sodium duoride, sodium sulphate, and in-
soluble substances. The sum of these impurities is called tiie
" refraction," and everything else is^sumed to be real nitrate of
soda. But as Chili saltpetre sometimes contains potassium
nitrate (in which the percentage of NO3 is less than iJiat of
NaNOs), errors up to 1 per cent. NaNOs or even more may be
caused by this indirect method of testing. Therefore, besides the
above estimations, it ought to be insisted upon to estimate the
potassium present and to calculate the results accordingly, or
even better, to estimate the nitric-nitrogen directly.

The aamplmg ought to be done very carefull^r, since especially
the amount of moisture may vary considerablv in dijQTerent parts
of a cargo, and the reduction of the large sample to a smaller bulk
ought to yield a really representative average sample.

1. MoisPwre. — ^Heat 10 g. or more of a good average sample in
a small glass or porcelain dish to 130"* for four or five hours, till
the wei^t is constant.

2. InsotvJble, — Dissolve 10 g. in water, filter, wash, and ignite.
If there is a very appreciable quantity of organic matter present,
first dry at 100** C. and weigh tne filter with uie precipitate before
igniting it. The solution is used for the tests Nos. 4 to 6.

3. Sodivm Nitrate^ — In order to obtain a really representative
sample, take about 20 g. of the carefully taken, large, average
sample, diy this at 110°, {;rind it very finely, mix it uioroughly,
and use it for the estimation of nitrate, etc. For the nitrate test,
weigh out about 0*35 g. (that is, a quantity, which will yiela
between 100 and 120 c.c. NO at the ordinary temperature and
barometric pressure) in a narrow weighing-tube. ^ rour its con-
tents as completely as possible into the decomposition vessel D
of the gas-volumeter, Fig. 9, p. 139, so that the substance ^ets
as much as possible to the bottom of the beaker of D. Wei^h
the weighing-tube again, with the small quantity of nitrate still
adhering to it, so as to ascertain the weight of nitrate taken = a,
in D. The three-way cock must be closed. Now run in 0*5 c.c.
water, wait until the nitrate has been entirely or nearly all dis-
solved, draw the solution with any small crystals into the inside

N

194 THE TECHI^ICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

of D, by lowering the level-tube E and cautiously opening the
tap, rinse the beaker with 4 or at most 1 c.c. water, and then allow
15 CO. of gure concentrated sulphuric acid to enter in the same
way. (It is important not to employ more^ than 1*5 c.c. water in
all to 15 C.C. of strong acid, for if the acid is too much dilated,
a froth of basic mercuric sulj^ate is formed which prevents an
exact reading of the volume. On the other hand, the addition of
a little water to the strong acid prevents the solution of an
appreciable quantity of NO in the liquid.)

The reaction is finished by vigorous shaking of the acid
solution with the mercury (as in the ordinary nitrometer, p. 136).
During this period the level-tube should be roughly put into
position, to avoid any considerable differences of pressure and
possible leakages through th% tap« When the agitating has been
finished, wait half an hour for cooling. Then connect tube c of
vessel D (Fig. 9, p. 139) with tube e of the measuring tube A, so that
glass touches glass, as described p. 140, and transfer all the gas to
A, by raising £ and lowering C, but not allowing any acid to get
into A. Then shut both taps, and by adjusting tne tubes A, B,C
in the manner described, p. 140, compress the gas volume to that
corresponding to O"" and 760 mm. pressure.

Of course it is also possible to employ, in lieu of the gas-
volumeter, an ordinary nitrometer, that is to leave out the
"reduction-tube" B. In this case the volume of KO is read off
under the prevailing atmospheric pressure, by adjusting the level-
tube accordingly ; tne volume of NO is then reduced to 0" and 760
mm. by reading the thermometer and barometer, and employing
the Tables 20, 1. and 11.^ pp. 38 et sea. The reduced volume of NO
we call X, Each c.c. of it corresponds to 0*0037986 g. NaNOs (com-
pare the table, p. 138); the whole, divided by the weight of the
nitrate employea a and multiplied by 100, indicates the x)ercentage
of real nitrate : that is : —

0-379860?

(ir.J5. — ^The nitrometer should be tested whether it really con-
tains exactly 100 c.c. to the mark 100^ by inverting it, filling in
mercury to the mark 100, running it off, and weighing. It should
weigh 1360 g. reduced to 0\ or 1356 g. at 15'' C. If there is an
error, this must be allowed ibr in each reading.)

4. Sodivm Stdphate is estimated in the solution No. 2 by
precipitation with BaCl2 and weighing the BaSOi. (Cf. pp. 110
and 146.)

5. Sodium Chloride is titrated with silver nitrate. {Cf.
p. 145.)

6. Iodine is detected by reducing the iodic acid with zinc, heat-
ing the solution with concentrated sidphuric acid, which liberates
^he iodine, diluting and agitating with carbon disulphide, which

NITRIC Acm Manufacture i«6

takes up the iodine, and is thereby coloured pink. The faintest
traces of iodate are found by dissolving 5 ff. in 100 c.c. of boiled
water, adding a little nitric acid, a few drops of a solution of
potassium iodide in boiled water, and a drop of starch solution.
In the presence of as little as 0*01 mg. I in 1 g. of nitre, a blue
colour will appear. A check test must, however, be made with
the potassium iodide employed for this test, as this often contains
some iodate.

7. PotoMit^m.-^Evaporate a special sample several times with
strong hydrochloric acid until all the nitrate is decomposed, and
estimate the K as in the analysis of potassium chlonde, p. 203.
Calculate it as KNO3, 100 parts of which is equivalent with 84*08
of NaNOg.

8. Percfdorate (Gilbert). — Treat 20 g. of the dried substance with
2 or 3 c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid in a flat, platinum
crucible ; add about 1 g. manganese dioxide, free from chlorine,
dry by heating over a small flame : bring to fusion, put on the lia
and keep the crucible at a red neat during one-quarter hour.
Dissolve the melt in hot water and dilute the solution to 250 c.c.
Take out 50 c.c. (=4 g. nitre), acidulate with nitric acid and add
a 1 per cent, solution of KMn04, until the red colour nersists for
a fuU minute. Then add ferric potassium sulphate (iron-alum),
and titrate the chloride bv means of silver nitrate (Volhard s
method). From the CI tnus found, deduct that which was
originally present (No. 5), and calculate the remainder as per-
chlorate. 1 part NaCl corresponds to 2*094 NaClOs.

B. — ^Nitre-Gake.

1. Free Add is titrated with standard alkali (p. 146). When
considerable G^uantities of ferric oxide or alumina are present,
no indicator is employed, but normal alkali is added till the
first flakes of a precipitate indicate the end of the reaction.

2. Nitric Add should be estimated in the gas-volumeter
(p. 139), or in the nitrometer (p. 136) ; the method employed is
exactly the same as described, viz., dissolving in the beaker in
very utile water, and decomposing with a large excess of
sulphuric acid.

3. Ferric Oxide and Alumina (as pp. 142 and 147).

[C.-— Nitric Acid.

IM THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

O.— Nitrlo Add.

1. 8PB0IFI0 ORAVXTY- OP HXTRIO AOID AT IS** O., COM-

PARBD WITH WATKL OF 4

' O. flK VAC

njo).

'

(liiinfire and R«y*)

r

1
i

Degrees

Twad.

dell.

FeioeiitaeD by weight.

N^ft.

HNOs.

NjOb.

HNO3.

0-08

0-10

1

1

1

0-85 1-00

8

10

2

1-62 1 1-90

16

19

8

2-89 2-80

24

28

4

8-17 8-70

1

88

38

5

1

3*94 4-60

40

47

6

4-71 5-60

49

57

7

6-47 6-88

57

66

8

6-22 , 7-26

64

75

9

6-97 j 8-18

73

85

10

7-71 ! 8-99

81

94

11

8-48 9-84

89

104

12

9-15

10-68

97

113

18

9-87

11-61

105

123

14

10-57

12-38

118

182

15

11-27

18-16

121

141

16

11-96

18-96

129

161

17

12-64

14-74

187

160

18

18-81

15-83

145

169

19

18*99

16-32

158

179

20

14-67

17-11

161

188

21

15-34

17-89

170

198

22

16-00

18-67

177

207

23

16-67

19-45

186

217

24

17-34

20-23

195

227

25

18-00 21-00

202

286

26

18-66 21-77

211

246

27

19-82

22-54

219

256

28

19-98

23-31

228

266

29

20-64

24-08

237

276

30

21-29

24-84

245

286

31

21-94

25-60

254

296

82

22-60

26-86

262

806

88

28-25

27-12

271

816

84

28-90

27-88

279

826

NITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE

197

SPBCIFIO GRAVITY'

)V NITBIO AGE

3 AT 16' 0.,

OOMFARIDD

WITH WATBB OF 4^ 0. (IN MAOUO)- Continued.

Degrees

Percentage l^ weight.

Grams per litre.

Twad-

dell.

N2O5.

HNO3.

NaOfi.

HNO3.

85

24-54

28-68

288

836

86

25-18

29-88

297

847

87

25-88 .

80-18

806

867

88

26-47

80-88

316

867

89

27-10

81-62

824

878

40

27-74

82-86

888

388

41

28*86

88-09

342

899

42

28-99

83-82

351

409

48

29-61

34-55

860

420

44

80-24

85-28

869

480

45

80-88

86-03

878

441

46

31-58

36-78

887

452

47

82-17

37-68

897

468

48

82-82

88-29

407

475

49

88-47

89-05

417

486

50

84-13

89-82

427

498

51

84-78

40-68

437

509

52

35-44

41-84

447

621

58

86-09

42-10

457

683

54

86-75

42-87

467

644

55

87-41

48-64

477

656

56

88-07

44-41

487

668

57

88-78

45-18

498

581

58

89-89

45-95

508

593

59

40-05

46-72

519

605

60

40-71

47-49

529

617

61

41-87

48-26

540

680

62

42-06

49-07

661

648

68

42-76

49-89

662

666

64

48-47

60-71

678

669

65

44-17

51-68

686

688

66

44-89

62-87

697

697

67

45-62

68-22

609

710

68

46-85

54-07

621

726

69

47-08

64-98

688

789

198 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

SPBOinO ORAVITT OF NZTBIO AOID AT ir O., CX>MPARBD
WITH WATBR 09 4' C. (Of irAOUOy^GanHnusd,

Degnes

FttroenUge by weight.

1
Oimms per litre.

Tira/l.

dell.

NaOfl.

HNOj,.

NgOfi.

1
HNOs.

70

47-82

55-79

645

753

71

48-67

' 66-66 .

658

768

72

49-85

57-67

671

783

l^

60-18

58-48 .

684

798

; 74

50-91

59 -8»

698

814

75

51-69

60-80

711

829

76

52-52

61-27

725

846

77

53-85

62-24

739

862

78

54-20

68-23

753

879

79

55-07

64-25

768

896

80

55-97

65-80

788

914

81

56-92

66-40

800

933

82

57-86

67-50

816

952

83

58-83

68*63

832

971

84

59-88

69-80

849

991

85

60-84

70-98

867

1011

86

61-86

72-17

885

1032

87

62-91

73-89

903

1053

88

64-01

74-68

921

1075

89

65-13

75-98

941

1098

90

66-24

77-28

961

1121

91

67-88

78-60

981

1144

92

68-56

79-98

1001

1168

93

69-79

81-42

1023

1193

94

71-06

82-90

1045

1219

95

72-39

84-45

1068

1246

96

73-76

86-05

1092

1274

97

75-18

87-70

1116

1302

98

76-80

89-60

1144

1335

99

78-52

91-60

1174

1369

1 100

80-65 94-09

1210

1411

101

82-63 96-89

1244

1451

102

84-09

98-10

1270

1481

108

84-92

99-07

1287

1501

104

85-44 99-67

]

1299

1516

NITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE

199

2. INPItUaNOB OP TBMPBRATURB ON THS SPBOIFIO

ORAVXT7 OF KITRIO ACID.

O'C.

6°

10°

15°

20°

26°

80°

85°

40°

45°

50°

1-434

1*414

1-407

1*400

1*892

1*886

1*878

1*871

1*868

1*866

1*849

1*418

1*404

1*897

1*890

1-882

1*876

1*867

1-861

1*864

1*847

1*840

1-402

1*894

1-887

1*880

1*872

1*866

1*857

1-861

1*844

1*889

1*882

1*891

1-888

1*877

1-870

1*868

1*856

1*849

1-842

1*885

1-880

1*823

1*880

1-878

1*867

1-860

1*868

1*846

1*840

1*888

1-826

1*820

1-814

1*869

1*862

1*866

1*850

1*848

1*887

1*880

1*828

1*817

1*812

1*806

1*869

1*852

1*846

1*840

1*888

1*827

1*820

1-814

1*806

1*808

1*297

1*848

1*842

1*886

1*880

1*824

1*818

1*811

1-805

1-299

1-294

1*288

1*888

1*882

1*826

1*820

1*814

1*808

1*802

1-296

1*290

1*285

1*280

1*827

1*821

1*816

1*810

1*804

1*299

1*298

1-287

1*281

1*276

1-271

1*817

1*811

1*806

1*800

1-294

1*289

1*288

1*278

1*278

1*268

1*268

1*807

1*801

1*296

1*290

1-284

1*279

1*278

1*268

1*268

1*258

1-258

1*297

1-291

1*286

1*280

1*274

1*269

1-268

1*258

1*268

1*248

1*248

1*287

1*281

1*276

1*270

1*266

1*259

1-254

1-248

1*248

1*288

1*284

1*277

1*271

1*266

1*260

1*255

1*249

1*244

1-288

1*288

1*228

1-224

1*266

1*260

1*255

1*250

1*246

1*240

1*285

1*229

1*224

1*219

1*215

1*266

1*260

1*246

1*240

1*285

1-280

1*225

1*220

1*216

1*210

1-205

1*246

1*240

1*286

1*280

1*226

1*220

1*215

1*210

1*206

1-201

1*196

1*285

1*280

1*226

1*220

1*215

1*210

1*205

1*200

1*196

1*191

1*186

1*224

1*219

1*214

1*210

1*205

1-200

1*196

1*191

1*187

1*182

1-177

1*218

1*208

1*204

1*200

1*196

1*190

1-186

1-181

1*177

1*172

1*167

1*202

1*198

1*194

1*190

1*186

1*181

1-177

1*172

1*168

1*168

1*158

1*192

1*188

1*184

1*180

1*177

1*171

1*167

1*168

1-158

1*154

1*150

1*182

1*178

1*174

1-170

1*166

1*162

1*158

1*154

1*149

1*146

1*141

1*172

1*168

1*164

1*160

1*166

1*152

1*148

1*144

1*140

1*186

1-182

1*161

1*168

1*164

1*160

1-146

1*142

1*189

1*186

1*180

1*127

1*128

1*151

1*147

1*144

1*140

1*186

1*182

1*129

1*125

1*121

1*118

1*114

1*189

1*186

1*188

1*180

1*126

1*128

1*119

1*116

1*112

1*109

1*105

1*129

1-126

1*128

1*120

1*116

1*118

1*110

1-106

1*108

1*100

1-096

1-118

1*115

1*112

1*110

1*107

1*104

1*101

1*097

1*094

1*091

1*087

1-108

1*190

1*102

1*100

1*097

1*094

1*091

1*088

1*085

1*082

1*079

1*098

1*096

1*092

1*090

1*087

1*084

1*081

1078

1*075

1-078

1-070

1-068

1*085

1*082

1*080

1*077

1-074

1-071

1*068

1*065

1-068

1*060

1-077

1*076

1*072

1*070

1*067

1*064

1-061

1-068

1*056

1-054

1-051

1*067

1*064

1*062

1*060

1*057

1*055

1*052

1*060

1*048

1-045

1-048

1-067

1054

1*062

1*060

1*047

1*046

1*048

1*040

1*088

1*086

1*088

1*047

1*044

1-042

1-040

1*087

1*085

1088

1*080

1*028

1*025

1*028

1*087

1*084

1*082

1*080

1*027

1*026

1*028

1*020

1*018

1*015

1*018

1-027

1*024

1*022

1*020

1*017

1*015

1018

1*010

1*008

1*005

1-008

1^017

1*014

1*012

1-010

1*007

1-005

1*008

1-000

1
1

0-998

0-995

1

0-098

200 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

imviaUbhob of TncpmATUBB ON THB spaomo

GRAVITY' OF HHTBIO AOW—Caniinmsd,

w

60»

66

70'

76°

80'

85'

90°

96°

100'

IMS

1*886

1-829

1*888

1*816

1-810

1-808

1*896

1*890

1-S8S

1*888

l-8«7

1-820

1-814

1*808

1*808

1-894

1*888

1*288

1-276

1*826

1*819

1-812

1*806

1*800

1-298

1*286

1*880

1*274

1-267

1-816

1-110

1*804

1-298

1-S9S

1*280

1*279

1-274

1*867

1-260

1-806

1-802

1-296

1*200

1-884

1*278

1«272

1*266

1-260

1-864

1-800

1-294

1-288

1-282

1-276

1*270

1-266

1*259

1-268

1-847

1-291

1*286

1*280

1-274

1*268

1*268

1-267

1-252

1*246

1-S40

1-282

1-278

1*272

1-266

1-261

1-266

1-250

1-245

1*240

1-S84

1-274

1-269

1-264

1-268

1-268

1-248

1-248

1-288

1*288

1-828

1-266

1-261

1-266

1-261

1-246

1-240

1-286

1*280

1-225

1-820

1-268

1-268

1-248

1-248

1-288

1*282

1-227

1-222

1-217

1-812

1-248

1-244

1-289

1-284

1-229

1*228

1*218

1*218

1-208

1-808

1*288

1-284

1-229

1-224

1-219

1*214

1-209

1-204

1-199

1*194

1-229

1-226

1-220

1*216

1-210

1-206

1*199

1-196

1*190

1*186

1-219

1-216

1-210

1-206

1-200

1*196

1-190

1*185

1*180

1*176

1-210

1-206

1*201

1*196

1-191

1*186

1-181

1176

1-171

1-167

1-200

1-196

1-191

1-186

1-181

1-177

1-172

1-167

1-162

1-168

1-191

1-187

1-182

1-177

1-172

1-168

1-168

1-168

1-168

1*149

1-182

1*177

1-172

1-167

1-168

1-168

1-168

1*148

1*144

1*189

1-178

1-168

1-168

1-160

1*154

1-149

1-144

1*140

1*185

1-180

1-168

1-168

M64

1-160

1-146

1-140

1-186

1*181

1*126

1-182

1-164

1*160

1*146

1-141

1-186

1-182

1-128

1*128

1*119

1-116

1-146

1-141

1-187

1*188

1-128

1-124

1*120

1*116

1*112

1-107

1*187

1-182

1-128

1-124

1-120

1-116

1-118

1*106

1*105

1-100

1-128

1-124

1-120

1-116

1-112

1-108

1-105

1-101

1*097

1*094

1-119

1*116

1-112

1-106

1*104

1*100

1-097

1-096

1*090

1*086

1-110

1-107

1-108

1-100

1-096

1-008

1*090

1*066

1*082

1*079

1-102

1-099

1-094

1-091

1-088

1-084

1*081

1*078

1*075

1-071

1-098

1-090

1-086

1088

1-080

1-076

1-078

1-070

1*067

1*064

1-084

1-081

1-078

1-076

1-072

1-068

1-065

1-068

1-060

1*066

1*076

1-078

1-070

1-067

1-064

1-061

1-058

1-066

1*062

1*049

1*067

1-064

1*061

1-068

1-066

1-062

1-050

1-048

1*046

1*042

1-068

1-066

1*062

1-060

1-047

1-044

1*042

1-040

1*088

1*086

1-049

1-046

1*044

1-042

1-089

1-087

1-084

1*081

1*029

1-027

1-040

1*088

1*086

1-084

1-081

1-029

1-026

1-028

1-021

1-018

1-080

1-028

1-026

1-024

1-021

1-019

1-015

1-014

1-012

1-009

1*020

1-018

1-016

1-014

1-011

1*009

1-007

1*004

1*002

1-000

1-010

1-008

1-006

1-004

1-001

0-999

0-997

0-994

0*998

0-990

1-001

0-999

0-997

0-996

0-992

0-990

0-988

0-985

0-988

0-981

0-991

0-989

0-987

0-986

0-982

0-980

0-978

0-976

0*978

0*971

NITRIC ACID MANUFACTURE 201

3. Total Acidity, — ^Titrate a diluted sample with standard
caustic soda solution. Methyl orange can be quite well used as
indicator, if the titration is performed as described^ p. 135, although
it would be destroyed by prolonged contact witn nitrous acid.
Strong fuming acid is weired in a Dulb-tap pipette, Fig. 11 , p. 144 ;
from this the add is slomy run to the bottom of a flsisk, contain-
ing ice-cold water, and the titration is performed quickly, to
prevent a decomposition of the nitrous acid. Less concentrated
nitric acids may oe measured by pipettes or burettes, in lieu of
weighing.

4. Chlorine, — Saturate with sodium carbonate, free from
chloride, till the reaction is neutral or faintly alkaline, and titrate
with silver nitrate according to p. 145.

5. Stdphuric Acid. — Saturate almost completely with sodium
carbonate and precipitate witJi barium chloride as on p. 110. If
the acid on evaporating leaves any appreciable fibced residue, this
usually consists of sodium sulphate.

6. Nitrous Acid or Nii/rogen Tetroxide are estimated by run-
ning the acid from a burette into a measured volume of warm,
dilute potassium permanganate {cf. p. 135). The result is usually
expressed in terms of nitrogen peroxide, N2O4. Each c.c. h
normal permanganate =0*023005 g. N2O4. Hence, if m c.c. acid
have been used and n c.c. permanganate required, the amount of
N2O4 is : —

0-023005 n
______ g.

The quantity of N2O4 is often so considerable that the specific
gravity tables give a very deceptive result as to the real percent-
age of HNO9, and an actual determination should be made.

7. Fixed Residue^ consisting chiefly of sodium sulphate, with
a little ferric oxide, etc., is estimated by evaporating to dryness
in a place protected from dust, igniting, and weighing.

8. Iron. — Precipitate with excess of ammonia, filter, weigh,
and ignite the Fe203.

9. Iodine is detected by digesting for a short time with pure
zinc, which reduces iodic acid and generates some nitrous acid ;
the latter sets the iodine of the HI free, and this can then be
recognised by shaking up with carbon disulphide, which thereby
assumes a pink colour.

N,B. — Tests Nos. 8 and 9 are only made with nitric acid sold
as chemically pure.

202 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

D. — Mixtures of Sulphuric Acid and Nitric Acid.

' Such mixtures are sold for the manufacture of explosives and
other nitrating pturposes. They are analysed by the methods
described by Lunge and Berl, Z, angew. Chem,, 1905, p. 1681 ;
C?iem. Zeit, 1907, p. 485.

1. Total Acidity, — WeUh about 1 g. in a bulb-tap pipetteJFig.
11, p. 144, and titrate wi£ normal caustic soda solution, when
emplo3ring methyl orange as indicator^ either add it only towards
the end or the titration (or else renew it as destroyed), or else add
an excess of soda, then the indicator, and titrate back \^ith
normal hydrochloric acid (compare p. 135).

2. Nitrous Add is estimated as on p. 135, by running the mixed
acid into a measured quantity of i normal permanganate. It
may be calculated as MNOjj, or N2O3, or even as N2O4. In the
latter case each c.c. of the ^ normal permanganate indicates
0*023005 g. N2O4. If we call tfie c.c. of permanganate used x, the
c.c. of mixed acid required for decolorising it y, and $ the specific

gravity of the latter, the ^304 is = ^^ g. per litre, or — per cent.
by weight of N2O4 in the mixed acid.

3. Toted Nitrogen Acids are estimated by the nitrometer,
p. 136. From the NO ^ven off deduct that corresponding to
the nitrous acid found m No. 2, and calculate the remainder
as HNO3.

4. Stdphuric Acid is found by deducting the nitrogen acids,
found in No. 3, from the total acidity found in No. 1.

If for 1 g. mixed acid we have used a c.c. J ncnmal soda solu-
tion and found b c.c. NO (reduced to 0"* and 760 mm.), and c, c.c.
of i normal permanganate to be required, the percentage of
the individual components is found oy one of the following
formulae, according as to whether we assume N2O4 or N2O3 to
be present : —

H2SO4=0-9808 o -0-219 6 HaSO4=0-9808 a -0-219ft

HNO8=0-28144 b - 3*149 c HNO3=0-28144 6 - 1-6745 c

N2O4 =2-30 c N2O3 =0-9503 c

H^O =100-(H2SO4 + HNO3 HQO =100-(H2S04+HN03
+ N2O4) +N2O3).

POTASSIUM SALTS 203

X. POTASSIUM SALTS.
A.— Grade Salts (Camallite, Kainite, etc.).

1. MoUture, — Heat 10 g. to 150° for some time, and allow to
cool in a desiccator.

2. Percentage of Potawivm ;* —

(a) In the Absence of more than 0*6 per cent. Potassium Sul-
phate. — Obtain a well-mixed sample: dissolve 7*640 g. in a
naif -litre flask, fill up to the mark, and niter. Place 20 c.c. of the
filtrate (=0*3056 of the crude salt) in a porcelain dish ; add 5 c.c.
of a solution of platinum chloride oontaming 10 g. Pt in 100 c.c.
Evaporate on the water-bath to a syrupy condition, with frequent
agitation, so that most of the HCl is driven off and the mass
appears dry after cooling. When cooL crush it with a flattened
glaas rod, add 20 c.c. strong alcohol (at least 94 per cent.),
mix well through and pour the liquid portion through a filter
which has been previously dried at 120'' to 130° till the weight is
constant, then weighed and moistened with alcohol. The filter
should not be filled up to the top. Pour fresh alcohol on the
residue, and heat it on the water-oath nearly to boiling. Wa^
the solid portion on to the filter, remove most of the liquid by
suction, press it between layers of filter i)aper and dry it till the
wd|^t is constant at 120° to ISO"* (this will usualljr require only
twenty minutes). Each milligram of the potassium-platinum
chloride corresponds to 0*1 per cent. KCl m the quantity of
substance employed.

(b) In the Pretence of more than 0'5^>er cent. Potassiwn Sulphate.
— ^Dissolve 30*56 g. of the crude salt in a ^-litre flask in 300 c.c.
water -f 13 c.c. strong hydrochloric acid by boiling, allow to cool,
and fill the flask up to the mark. Put 50 c.c. of the clear
solution into a 200 cc. flask, heat to boiling, and precipitate the
sulphate with the exactly necessary quantity of barium chloride,
by adding the principal portion of the reagent quickly, the
remainder in single drops, ^ always waiting till the liquid shows
a clear layer and throwing into this a minute crystal of
barium chloride, until this ceases to produce a cloud. If too

* These aie the methods given by Tietjens in Tech, Meth,, vol. i., p. 620, as worked
out and practised at all the Stassrort works. This applies also to the flgnres em-
ployed for the calculation of the results which are not iMsed on the real atomic
weight of platinum (=: 104*80) and on the formula KQPtCle, but are empirical data,
based on many years' experience. The difference is mainly caused by the fact that
the precipitate is not pure K2PtClA, but contains some chemically comlrfned water
wbi<»i is not given up even after prolonged drying.

204 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

much BaClj should have been accidentally added, it must be
removed by a drop or two of dilute sulphuric add. After cooling,
fill up to the mark and take 20 ex. of the dear solution =0'3056
^. salt, which is then treated with platinum chloride as described
in No. 1. One mg. of the precipitate corresponds to O'l per cent
KCL if the K is to be calculatea as such.

For the analysis of salts consisting essentially of K2SO4, like
kainite, dissolve 35*71 g., in which case each mg. of the platinam
predpitate indicates O'l per cent. E^04. When testmg rich
sulphate (90 to 97 per cent E^^SOJ it is necessary to add to the
percentage thus found a correction of +0*3 per cent, but this
should not be made in the case of potasso-magnesium sulphates.

3. Percentage of Sodiwn Chloride: —

(a) In High-Orade Salts. — If there is little or no sul-
phate present, the NaCl is calculated from the difference be-
tween the KCl found directly by gravimetric analysis and
the total dilorides as found by titration with silver solution,
p. 146. Where there is an appredable proportion of sulphate
present, the percentage of (combined) SO3 must be esti-
mated, as well as that of potassium and chlorine. The barium
sulphate obtained is calculated to KCl (1 part BaS04 = 0*7469
K2SOf=»0'6391 KCl); this amount is deducted from the total
quantity of K, calculated as KCl ; the remaining KCl, which was
present as such and must be quoted as such in the analysis, is
deducted from that which is found when calculating all the CI as
KCl. The now remaining nominal amount of KCL is calculated
as Naa, 100 parts KCl being equivalent to 78*52 NaCl. The SO3
found is calculated as K2SO4.

(b) In Low-Grade Salts it is not usual to estimate the NaCL
If it is to be done, a complete analysis is required. KCH is esti-

mated as above, in addition : Ca (p. 146), Mg mp. 147 and 205), SO3
Cp, 110), insoluble matter, and moisture. SO3 is calculated as
CaS04 : if there is not enough Ca present for all the SO3, the
remainder is calculated as MgSO^, and after that as KASO4. If
more Mg is present than^ is required to saturate the SO3 at dis-
posal, the remaining Mg is calculated as MgCJlg. Any excess of
CI over that required to form KCl and MgClg is calculated as
NaCl.

4. M(ignesivm Chloride. — In order to distinguish the camaJlite
salts (which gave up the M^Cl2 to idcohol) from the non-camallitic
salts (which do not do this), shake 10 g. of the crude salt for ten
ndnutes in a ^-litre flask with 100 c.c. 96 per cent, alcohol and
titrate 10 c.c. of the filtrate with ^ normal silver solution. Such
salts as contain upwards of 6 per cent. CI soluble in alcohol are
regarded as belonging to the camallite group.

POTASSIUM SALTS 205

5. Total Magnedvm, — Boil 10 g. of finely ground, crude salt
with 300 C.C. of water in a ^litre flask for an hour ; after cooling
add 50 C.C. twice-normal sodium hydroxide solution, in the case
of much lime being present also 20 c.c. of a 10 per cent, solution
of neutral potassium oxalate, fill the flask up to the mark, filter
after a Quarter of an hour, and titrate 60 c.c. of the filtrate with
normal n^rdrochloric acid. Each c.c. of the twice-normal alkali
used up IS = 0*04036 g. MgCl2. To the percentage of MgO 0*2
per cent, should be added {Precht. Z, cmoH. Chem., 1879, p. 438).

B. — Ck>mmeroial Potassium Ohloride.

Weigh out 7*640 g. and proceed exactly as described under A, 2
(a), p. 203. The calculation is also made in the same manner.

Potassium chloride made from yinasses contains much sulphate
and a little carbonate which is estimated alkalimetrically.

C. — ^Potassium Sulphate.

Proceed just as in the case of sodium sulphate, p. 146. The
potassium must sometimes be estimated, which is done as on p.
203 for A, 2 (b).

D. — Leblanc Process for the Manufacture of
Potassium Carbonate.

Both the raw materials and the intermediate products are
tested like those for the soda process, p. 164 e^ seq.

E. — Beet Ashes.

For this material, which seldom occurs in the English trade,
special methods have been worked out by Heyer (Ghemiker-
ZeiUmgy 1891, p. 1489 et seq,), and by Albert! and Hempel (ibid,,
p. 1623).

F. — Ck>mmercial Carbonate of Potash.

1. Available Alkali is titrated with normal hydrochloric acid,
as on p. 176.

2. Total Potassium is estimated according to p. 203, A (b), so
that all sulphate is converted into chloride. Of course, initially,

206 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

more hydrochloric must be employed in order to decompose
the carbonate.

3. CJdm'ide is estimated by decinormal silver solution, p. 145.
1 c.c. of this =0-00746 g. KCl.

4. Sulphate is estimated as BaS04, p. 110. 1 g. BaSOi =0*7468
K2SO4.

6. InsolMe matter, as on p. 176.

6. Silicate. — Saturate the salt with hydrochloric acid, evaporate
to dryness, moisten with HCl, evaporate apain, dissolve in dilate
HCl, filter, wash, and strongly ignite the SiOo., This test is only
made exceptionally, and the potassium suicate is calculated
together with tibe carbonate.

7. Phosphate is estimated by the magnesia method, and is
treated like the silicate.

8. Calculation of the Analyses, — Calculate : —

(a) K2CO3 from the difference between the total potassium
and that corresponding to the CI and SO3 found.

{b) Na^OOa from the difference between the total available
alkali and the K2CO3 as calculated in (a).

(c) Ka and

(cO K2SO4 as above.

(c) Water and

(/) Insoluble matter, if necessary also iron, by a special test.

POTASSIUM SALTS

207

1. sPBonrio ORAvrrniB of BOLxmovs of POTABsmM

OARBOKATB AT 16^

^MCifiC

DegreeB

Degnes

Peroent.

1 cb.in. oontaiiui

Qnyity.

Twmddell.

Bsam^.

K4OO3.

kg. K4CX>g.

1-000

1-006

1

0-7

0-50

5-0

1-010

2

1-4

1-04

10-50

1-015

3

2-1

1-60

16-24

1-020

4

2-7

2-10

21-42

1-026

5

3-4

2-64

27-06

1-030

6

4-1

3-21

33-06

1-036

7

4-7

8-77

39-02

1-040

8

6-4

4-84

46-14

1-046

9

6-0

4-90

51-21

1-060

10

6-7

6-47

67-44

1-065

11

7-4

6-00

63-30

1-060

12

8-0

6-60

68-90

1-066

13

8-7

7-07

76-80

1-070

14

9-4

7-60

81-32

i 1-075

15

10-0 .

8-10

87-08

1-080

16

10-6

8-67

93-64

1-085

17

11-2

9-20

99-82

1-090

18

11-9

9-70

105-73

1-095

19

12-4

10-20

111-69

1-100

20

13-0

10-70

117-70

1-105

21

13-6

11-26

124-42

1-110

22

14-2

11-80

180-98

1-115

23

14-9

•12-30

137-15

1-120

24

16-4

12-80

143-36

1-125

25

16-0

13-30

149-63

1-130

26

16-6

13-80

155-94

1-135

27

17-0

14-80

162-31

1-140

28

17-7

14-80

168-72

1-145

29

18-3

15-30

175-19

1 -160

30

18-8

15-80

181-70

1-156

31

19-3

16-30

188-27

1-160

32

19-8

16-80

194-88

1-165

33

20-3

17-30

201-55

1-170

34

20-9

17-80

208-26

1-175

35

21-4

18-30

215-03

1-180

36

22-0

18-80

221-84

1-185

37

22-5

19-26

228-23

208 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

sPBomo QiBAvmmB 01* soLuriomi of POTASsmM

OARBONATB AT 15°— CofUtiMMd

^paeiflc

DegreM

Dflgnet

Ferooat.

1 cb.in. oontains

GmTity.

TwwideU.

Bmuh^.

K^CJO,.

kg. KjOOs.

1-1»0

38

23-0

19-70'

284-48

1-195

89

28*5

20-20

241-39

1-200

40

24-0

20-70

248-40

1-205

41

24-5

21-15

254-86

1-210

42

25-0

21-60

261-86

1-215

43

25-5

22-05

267-91

1-220

44

26-0

22-50

274-50

1-225

45

26-4

22-96

281-26

1-230

46

26-9

28-41

287-94

1-285

47

27-4

28-90

295-17

1-240

48

27-9

24-40

302-56

1-245

49

28-4

24-86

309-51

1-250

50

28-8

25-32

316-50

1-255

51

29-8

25-80

328-79

1-260

62

29-7

26-30

331-88

1-265

58

30-2

26-77

388-64

1-270

54

30-6

27-17

845-06

1-275

55

31-1

27-60

351-90

1-280

56

31-6

28-05

859-04

1-285

57

32-0

28-50

866-28

1-290

58

32*4

28-96

378-58

1-295

59

32-8

29-42

880-99

1-800

60

33-3

29-97

389-61

1-305

61

33-7

80-43

897-11

1-810

62

34-2

30-86

404-27

1-316

63

34-6

31-24

410-81

1-320

64

35-0

31-60

417-12

1-325

65

36-4

32-06

424-80

1-330

66

35-8

32-52

432-52

1-335

67

36-2

32-96

440-02

1-340

68

36-6

33-88

447-29

1-346

69

37-0

33-80

454-61

1-360

70

37-4

34-22

461-97

1-365

71

37-8

34-64

469-37

1-360

72

38-2

35-06

476-82

1-366

73

38-6

35-48

484*30

1-370

74

89-0
,,^

36-90

491*83

POTASSIUM SALTS

209

SPBOIFIG GRAVITUIS OF BOIinTIONS OF POTASSIUM
CARBONATB AT IS'^—ConiinuMl.

Specific

Degrees

Degrees

Per cent.

1 cb.m. contains

Oravity.

TwaddeU.

Banin^.

Kj^X)8.

kg. Kj^Os.

1-375

75

39-4

36-32

499-40

1-380

76

39-8

36-74

507-01

1-885

77

40-1

37-17

614-80

1-390

78

40-5

37-60

522-64

1-395

79

40-8

38-02

580-38

1 -400

80

41-2

38*46

538-30

1-405

81

41-6

38-88

646-26

1-410

82

42-0

39-30

564-13

1-415

83

42-3

39-73

662-19

1-420

84

42-7

40-16

570-27

1-425

85

43-1

40-69

578-41

1-430

86

43-4

41-02

686-59

1-436

87

43-8

41-45

694-81

1-440

88

44-1

41-85

602-64

1-445

89

44-4

42-22

610-08

1-450

90

44-8

42-68

617-41

1-456

91

45-1

42-97

625-21

1-460

92

45-4

43-37

633-20

1-466

93

45-8

43-77

641-23

1-470

94

46-1

44-17

649-30

1-475

95

46-4

44-67

657-41

1-480

96

46-8

44-96

666-41

1-486

97

47-1

45-38

673-89

1-490

98

47-4

46-81

682-57

1-496

99

47-8

46-24

691-29

1-500

100

48-1

46-66

699-90

1-506

101

48-4

47-03

707-80

1-510

102

48-7

47-40

716-74

1-516

103

49-0

47-78

723-87

1-520

104

49-4

48-15

731-88

1-525

105

49-7

48-63

740-08

1-530

106

50-0

48-90

748-17

1-635

107

60-3

49-26

756-14

1-540

108

50 -g

49-61

763-99

1-546

109

50-9

49-96

771-88

1-560

110

51-2

60-38

780-12

1-655

111

51-5

50-70

788-39

1-560

112

61-8

51-07

796-69

1-565

113

52-1

51-46

806-19

o

210 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

a. nfWLXjmtnm of tbhpbratobb on thb spboifio

0*0.

6*.

10*.

16*.

20%

26'.

80'.

86'.

40*.

45'.

50'.

1*6S8

1*566

1-688

1-580

1*677

1-574

1-671

1-568

1*666

1-568

1*559

1-677

1-876

1*678

1-670

1-668

1-566

1-668

1-560

1*667

1-664

1*561

l-fl«7

1-666

1-668

1-660

1*668

1-666

1-668

1*660

1*648

1*646

1*648

1-657

1-664

1*662

1*660

1-648

1-646

1-644

1*641

1*688

1*586

1*588

1*647

1*644

1-642

1-640

1-688

1-686

1-684

1-681

1*628

1*626

1*528

1*686

1*684

1*682

1-680

1-628

1-626

1-624

1-621

1*618

1*^16

1*512

1-680

1*624

1*622

1*690

1*618

1-616

1-514

1-611

1*608

1-506

1*502

1*616

1*614

1-512

1-610

1*608

1-606

1-508

1-600

1*498

1*495

1-492

1*606

1*504

1-602

1-600

1*498

1-496

1-498

1-490

1*488

1-485

1-482

1*496

1-494

1*492

1-490

1-488

1-486

1-484

1-481

1*478

1*475

1*472

1*486

1*484

1*482

1*480

1-478

1*476

1-474

1-471

1*468

1*465

1*462 I

1*476

1-474

1*472

1-470

1-468

1-466

1-464

1-461

1*458

1*465

1*452

1*466

1*464

1*462

1-460

1*468

1*466

1*464

1*461

1*448

1-445

1*442

1*456

1*464

1*462

1*450

1*448

1*446

1*444

1*441

1-488

1*485

1-432

1-446

1*444

1*442

1*440

1-488

1*486

1-484

1-481

1*428

1*425

1*422

1*486

1*484

1*482

1^480

1*428

1*426

1-428

1-420

1*418

1*414

1*411

1*426

1*424

1*422

1-420

1*418

1-416

1-418

1-410

1*408

1*404

1*401

1-416

1*414

1*412

1*410

1*406

1-406

1-404

1*401

1*898

1*895

1*892

1*406

1-404

1*402

1-400

1*898

1*806

1-894

1-891

1-888

1*885

1-882

1*896

1*894

1*892

1-890

1*888

1*886

1-884

1-881

1-878

1*876

1-878

1*886

1-884

1*882

1-880

1*878

1-876

1-874

1*871

1*868

1*866

1-863

1-876

1*874

1*872

1*870

1*868

1*866

1-864

1-861

1*858

1-356

1-853

1*866

1-864

1*862

1*860

1*868

1*866

1-864

1-861

1*848

1*346

1*843

1*856

1*864

1*852

1*850

1*848

1-846

1*844

1-841

1*888

1*886

1*883

1-846

1*844

1*842

1*840

1*888

1*886

1*884

1*881

1*828

1*826

1-823

1*886

1*884

1*882

1-880

1*828

1*826

1*824

1-821

1-818

1*816

1-818

1-826

1*824

1*822

1-820

1*818

1*816

1-814

1-811

1-806

1*806

1*803 1

1*816

1-814

1*812

1*810

1*806

1*806

1*808

1-800

1*298

1*295

1-292 ,

1-806

1*804

1*802

1*800

1*298

1*296

1*298

1-290

1*288

1*285

1-282 1

1-296

1*294

1*292

1*290

1*288

1*286

1*288

1-280

1*278

1*275

1-278 '

I

1*286

1*284

1*282

1-280

1*278

1-276

1*278

1-270

1*268

1*265

1*268

1*276

1*274

1*272

1-270

1*268

1-265

1*268

1-260

1-257

1*255

1-262

1*266

1-264

1*262

1-260

1*258

1-266

1*258

1-260

1-247

1*245

1*242

1*256

1-254

1*252

1*250

1*248

1*246

1-248

1*240

1*288

1*285

1-282

1*246

1*244

1*242

1*240

1*288

1*286

1*288

1*280

1*228

1*226

1*222

1*286

1-284

1*282

1-280

1*228

1*226

1*224

1*222

1*219

1*217

1*214

1*226

1*224

1*222

1*220

1*218

1*216

1*214

1*212

1*209

1*207

1*204

1*216

1-214

1*212

1*210

1*208

1*206

1*204

1*202

1*199

1*197

1*194

1*206

1*204

1*202

1*200

1*198

1*196

1*194

1*192

1*189

1*187

1-184

1-196

1*194

1*192

1*190

1*188

1*186

1*184

1*182

1*179

1-177

1-174

1*186

1*184

1*182

1*180

1-178

1*176

1*174

1*172

1-170

1*167

1-164

1*176

1*178

1*171

1*170

1*168

1*166

1*164

1*162

1-160

1-157

1*156

1*166

1*168

1-161

1*160

1*168

1*166

1*154

1*152

1*150

1*147

1*145

1*156

1*158

1*151

1*150

1*148

1*146

1*144

1*142

1*140

1*187

1*185

1-144

1-148

1*141

1*140

1*188

1-186

1*184

1-182

1*180

1*127

1-125

1-188

1*182

1*181

1*180

1*128

1*126

1*124

1-122

1*120

1*117

1-114 ,

1-128

1*122

1*121

1*120

1*118

1*116

1-114

1*112

1*110

1*107

1-104

1*118

1-112

1-111

1*110

1*108

1*106

1*104

1*102

1*100

1*097

1-094

1*108

1-102

1-101

1*100

1*098

1*096

1*094

1*092

1*090

1*087

1*064

1*093

1*092

1*091

1*090

1*089

1*087

1*086

1*088

1*081

1*079

1*077 .

1*068

1-082

1*081

1*080

1*079

1-077

1*076

1*073

1*071

1*069

1-067 1

1-078

1*072

1-071

1-070

1-069

1*067

1*066

1*064

1-062

1*060

1*058 1

1*068

1062

1*061

1*060

1*050

1*057

1-056

1-064

1-052

1-050

1-048

1*068

1-052

1-051

1*060

1*040

1*047

1-046

1-044

1-042

1*040

1-038

1043

1-042

1-041

1-040

•

1*089

1-087

1-086

1-084

1-082

1-080

1028

1068

1*082

1-081

1-080

1-028

1-027

1*025

1-024

1-022

1*020

1-018

1-028

1-022

1-021

1-020

1-018

1-017

1*015

1-014

1-012

1010

1-008

1-018

1-012

1-011

i-oio-

1-008

1-007

1*005

1-004

1-002

1*000

0*998

POTASSIUM SALTS

211

osAvmu o9 •oumom of voTASBitnt oABBONAm.

66°.

60'.

65'.

70'.

75\

80'.

85°.

90°.

95°.

100*.

1-656

1-668

1-550

1-546

1-542

1-588

1-584

1-580

1-626

1-521

1-548

1-646

1-541

1-687

l-5»

1-580

1-526

1-622

1-618

1-518

1-689

1-686

1-682

1-628

1-625

1-522

1-517

1-518

1-609

1-505

1-680

1-627

1-624

1-521

1-618

1-518

1-609

1-604

1-601

1-488

1-620

1-617

1-514

1-511

1-606

1-604

1-600

1-487

1-494

1-480

1-509

1-607

1-504

1-600

1-497

1-494

1-491

1-488

1-485

1-481

1-499

1-497

1-494

1-460

1-487

1-484

1-481

1-478

1-475

1-471

1-489

1-487

1-484

1-480

1-477

1-474

1-471

1-468

1-466

1-461

1-4Y9

1-476

1-474

1-470

1-467

1-464

1-461

1-458

1-455

1-451

1-409

1-466

1-464

1-460

1-457

1-464

1-460

1-447

1-444

1-441

1-469

1-466

1-454

1-460

1-447

1-444

1-440

1-487

1-484

1-481

1-449

1-446

1-444

1-440

1-487

1-484

1-481

1-428

1-424

1-421

1-489

1-486

1-484

1-480

1-427

1-424

1-421

1-418

1-414

1-411

1-429

1-426

1-428

1-420

1-417

1-414

1-410

1-406

1-405

1-402

1-419

1-416

1-418

1-410

1-407

1-404

1-400

1-898

1-896

1-882

1-409

1-406

1-404

1-401

1-898

1-895

1-891

1-888

1-885

1-882

1-890

1-896

1-894

1-891

1-888

1-886

1-881

1-878

1-875

1-872

1-890

1-887

1-884

1-880

1-877

1-874

1-871

1-868

1-865

1-862

1-880

1-877

1-874

1-870

1-867

1-864

1-861

1-868

1-855

1-862

; 1-870

1-867

1-864

1-861

1-858

1-855

1-851

1-848

1-845

1-842

1-800

1-857

1-854

1-851

1-848

1-845

1-841

1-888

1-885

1-882

1-860

1-847

1-844

1-841

1-888

1-885

1-882

1-829

1-826

1-828

1-840

1-887

1-884

1-881

1-828

1-825

1-822

1-819

1-816

1-818

1-880

1-827

1-824

1-821

1-818

1-816

1-812

1-809

1-806

1-808

1-820

1-817

1-814

1-811

1-806

1-805

1-802

1-299

1-296

1-298

1-810

1-807

1-804

1-801

1-298

1-295

1-292

1-289

1-286

1-284

1-800

1-297

1-294

1-291

1-288

1-285

1-282

1-279

1-276

1-274

1-290

1-287

1-284

1-281

1-278

1-276

1-278

1-270

1-267

1-264

1-280

1-277

1-274

1-271

1-268

1-266

1-268

1-260

1-257

1-254

1-270

1-267

1-264

1-261

1-258

1-256

1-258

1-250

1-247

1-244

1-200

1-267

1-254

1-261

1-248

1-246

1-248

1-240

1-287

1-284

1-260

1-247

1-244

1-242

1-289

1-286

1-284

1-281

1-228

1-226

1-240

1-287

1-284

1-282

1-229

1-226

1-224

1-221

1-218

1-215

1-280

1-227

1-224

1-221

1-218

1-216

1-218

1-210

1-206

1-205

1-220

1'217

1-214

1-2U

1-208

1-206

1-208

1-200

1-198

1-195

1-212

1-209

1-205

1-202

1-198

1-196

1-194

1^192

1-188

1-186

1-202

1-199

1-196

1-198

1-190

1-187

1-184

1-182

1-178

1176

1192

1-189

1-186

1-188

1-180

1-178

1-176

1-172

1-169

1-167

1-182

1-179

1-176

1-178

1-m

1-168

1-166

1-162

1-159

1-157

1-172

1-169

1-166

1-164

1-161

1-158

1-155

1-152

1-149

1-146

1162

1-159

1-156

1-154

1-151

1-148

1-146

1-142

1-189

1-186

1162

1-160

1-147

1-144

1-141

1-188

1-185

1182

1-129

1-126

1-142

1-140

1-187

1-184

1-181

1-128

1-125

1-122

1-119

1-116

1-182

1-180

1-128

1-125

1-122

1-118

1-115

1-112

1-109

1-106

1-122

1-120

1-118

1-115

1-112

1-108

1-105

1-102

1-099

1-096

1112

1-110

,1-108

1-106

1-102

1-098

1-095

1-092

1-089

1-066

1 1102

1-100

1-098

1-095

1-092

1-088

1-086

1-082

1-078

1-076

1092

1-090

1-087

1*064

1-082

1-079

1-075

1-072

1-069

1-067

1082

1-080

1*077

1-074

1-072

1-069

1-065

1-062

1-059

1-057

1074

1-071

1-068

1-066

1-068

1-060

1-057

1-054

1-050

1-048

1-066

1-062

1-059

1-056

1-064

1-051

1-048

1-045

1-041

1-088

1 1056 .

1-058

1-050

1-047

1-045

1-042

1-089

1-086

1-082

1-029

1-046

1-044

1-041

1-088

1-086

1-083

1-030

1-036

1-028

1-020

1086

1-088

1-681

1-038

1-026

1022

1-019

1-016

1018

i-010

' 1026

1028

1-021

1-018

1015

1012

1009

1-006

1-008

1-000

1016

1014

1-012

1-009

1-006

1002

0-999

0-996

0-998

0-990

1-007

1-004

1-002

0-999

0-996

0-998

0-990

0-987

0-984

0-981

0-996

1

0-994

0-992

0-989

0-986

0-988

0-980

0-977

0-974

0-971

212 tttfi TECttKlCAL CttEkllStS* hANDfeOOk

8. 8PB0IFI0 GRAVITY OF BOLUTIOmi OF POTASSIUM
.-16'' ^ . . .^_ ..

obtained liy PlAkerincr {Journ,

Cfhem. 8oe., IxttL, 890>

Spectfic
Oravlty.

Degrees
Twaddell.

Degrees
Baamd.

100 parts by weight
contain

1 cb.m. oontains kg.

K2O.

KOH.

E^.

KOH.

i

1-000

0-00

0-00

0-00

0-00

1-005

1

0-7

0-50

0-60

5-03

6-03

1-010

2

1-4

0-99

1-18

10-00

11-92

1-015

3

2-1

1-45

1-73

14-72

17-56

1-020

4

2-7

1-91

2-28

19-48

23-26

1-025

5

3-4

2-37

2-82

24-29

28-91

1 1 -030

6

4-1

2-82

3-36

29-05

34-61

1-036

7

4-7

3-27

3-90

33-84

40-37

1-040

8

5-4

3-73

4-44

38-79

46-18

1-045

9

6-0

4-19

4-99

43-79

52-15

1-050

10

6-7

4-64

5-53

48-72

58-07

1-055

11

7-4

5-10

6-08

53-81

64-14

1-060

12

8-0

5-54

6-60

58-72

69-96

1-065

13

8-7

6-00

7-15

63-90

76-15

1-070

14

9-4

6-45

7-68

69-02

82-18

1-075

15

10-0

6-90

8-22

74-18

88-37

1-080

16

10-6

7-85

8-76

79-88

94-61

1-085

17

11-2

7-79

9-28

84-52

100-69

1-090

18

11-9

8-24

9-82

89-82

107-04

1-095

19

12-4

8-68

10-37

95-05

113-22

1-100

20

13-0

9-13

10-87

100-43

119-57

1-105

21

18-6

9-62

11-46

106-30

126-63 ,

1-110

22

14-2

10-00

11-92

110-00

132-31

1-115

23

14-9

10-44

12*44

116-41

138-71

1-120

24

15-4

10-88

12-96

121-86

145-15

1-125

25

16-0

11-32

13-48

127-35

151-65

1-130

26

16-5

11 '76

14-01

132-S9

158-31

1-135

27

17-0

12-21

14-53

138-58

164-92

1-140

28

17-7

12-63

15-04

143-98

171-46 '

1-145

29

18-3

13-06

15-56

149-53

178-16

1-150

30

18-8

13-50

16-08

155-25

184-92

1-155

31

19-8

13-92

16-58

160-78

191-50

i-iet)

32

19-8

14-36

17-10

166-58

198-36

1-166

38

20-3

14 '79

17-62

172-30

205-27

1170

34

20-9

15-22

18-13

178-07

212-12 i

1-175

35

21-4

15-65

18-64

183-89

219-02

POTASSIUM SALTS

313

SPBOIFIO ORAVIT7 OF SOLUTIONS OF POTASSItTM

16°

HYDBOZZDB AT

■Oontim^sd.

100 parts by weight
^ ooQtun

1 cb.in. contains kg.

Bpecitto

Degrees

TwaddeU.

Degrees
Bailing.

Gravity.

KjiC)

KOH.

KgO.

KOH.

1-180

36

22-0

16-08

19*16

189-74

226-97

1-186

37

22-5

16-51

19-66

195-64

232-97

1-190

38

28-0

16-93

20-17

201-47

240-02

1-195

89

23-5

17-36

20-66

207*33

246*89

1-200

40

24-0

17-77

21-17

218-24

254-04

1-205

41

24-5

18-18

21-66

219-07

261-00

1-210

42

25-0

18-60

22-16

225-06

268-14

1-215

48

25-5

19-08

22-67

281-21

275-44

1-220

44

26-0

19-45

28-17

287-29

282-67

1-226

45

26-4

19-86

28-66

248*29

289-84

1-230

46

26-9

20-27

24-14

249-82

296-92

1-285

47

27-4

20-69

24-64

255-52

304-80

1-240

48

27-9

21-10

26-13

261-64

811-61

1-245

49

28-4

21-51

25-62

267-80

318-97

1-250

50

28-8

21-91

26-10

278-88

826-25

1-255

51

29-8

22-82

26-69

280-12

338-70

1-260

52

29-7

22-78

27-07

286-40

841-08

1-265

53

30-2

28-14

27-66

292-72

848-63

1-270

54

30-6

23-54

28*04

298-96

866*11

1-275

55

31-1

23*94

28-62

805-24

863 -63

1-280

56

31-5

24-35

29-00

811-68

371-20

1-285

57

32-0

24-75

29-48

818-04

378-82

1-290

58

32-4

25-16

29-96

324*44

386-48

1-295

59

32-8

25-65

80*43

380-87

394-07

1-800

60

33-3

26-96

30-91

837-36

401*83

1-805

61

38-7

26-34

81-37

843-74

409*88

1-810

62

34-2

26-73

81-84

350-16

417-10

1-815

63

34*6

27-18

32-31

356*76

424*88

1-820

64

35-0

27-62

32-78

363*26

432*70

1-825

65

35-4

27-91

33*24

369*81

440*43

1-880

66

86-8

28-29

33*70

876*26

448-21

1-885

67

36-2

28*68

34-16

382-88

456-04

1-240

68

36-6

29-07

34*63

389*54

464-04

1-845

69

87-0

29*46

86*09

396*24

471-96

1-350

70

87-4

29-86

35-55

402-98

479*98

1-355

71

37-8

30-23

36-01

409*62

487-94

1-360

72

38-2

30*61

86-46

416-30

495*86

814 THE TECHNICAL CHBlilSTS' HANDBOOK

Spfldfic I
Qnritj. TwaddelL

1-966
1*«70

1-500
1-605
1-510
1-516
1-620

i-526
1-630
1*685
1-640

78

74

1-875

75

1-380

76

1-885

77

1-880

78

1*895

78

1-400

80

1-405

81

1-410

82

1-415

88

1-420

84

1-4-25

85

1-430

M

1-485

87

1-440

88

1*445

89

1-450

90

1-455

91

1-460

92

1-465

98

1-470

94

1-475

95

1-480

96

1*485

97

1*490

98

1*495

99

100
101
102
108
104

105
106
107
108

100 mte vr W9i^t

eoBtiiia

1 ekm. conUiiM kg.

BNIMSv

KjO.

KO*.

KjO.

KO4.

88*«

90-M

96*92

423*01

508-96

89*0

31-87

37*37

429*77

611-97

89-4

8176

S7-88

486*70

620-16

89-8

S2'14

38-28

443-63

528-26

40-1

S2-S2

38-73

450*40

686*41

40*5

32-88

89*18

457*17

644*60

40-8

38-27

89-68

464*12

662-84

41-2

33-66

40-09

471*24

661-26

41-6

34-03

40-53

478*12

569-46

42-0

34-40

40-98

486-04

677-82

42*8

34-77

41*42

492*00

686-09

42-7

35-16

41*87

499-13

594*65

48-1

35-53

42-32

506-30

608-06

48-4

35-90

42*76

518-37

611*47

43*8

36-27

43-20

520*47

619-92

44*1

86-68'

48-68

527-47

628-27

44-4

36-99

44-06

534-61

686*67

44-8

37-36

44-50

541-72

646-26

45-1

37-72

44-93

548*83

658-73

46-4

38-09

45-37

556-11

662*40

45-8

38*45

45*80

563-29

670*97

46-1

38-81

46-28

570-51

679*58

46-4

89-17

46*66

577-76

688-24

46-8

39-54

47*09

585-19

696-93

47-1

39-89

47*61

592-87

705-52

47-4

40-24

47*93

599-58

714-16

47-8

40-60

48-86

606-97

722-98

48-1

40-95

48*78

614-25

781*70

48-4

41-31

49-20

621-72

740-46

48-7

41-68

49-64

629-87

749-56

49-0

42-03

50-06

686*75

768-41

49-4

42-38

50-48

644-18

767-80

49-7

42-78

50-90

651-63

776-23

50-0

43-09

51-82

659-28

786-20

50-8

43-44

51-74

666-80

794-21

50-6

48-78

52-15

674*21

808-11

AMMONIA MANUFACTURE 215

XI. AMMONIA MANX7FA0TURB.

A. — ^Gas-Liquor.

This liquor generally contains the ammonia, principally in the
state of carbonate and sulphide, which can be (uiven off by boil-
ing, without emplopng lime or alkali, and which are indicated by
al kalimetrical ^ testing ^ (volatile ammoma). There is, however,
always a certain quantity of ammonia present in the state of salts
which are not appreciably volatilised by mere boiling, and not
indicated by simple testing with standard acid. These are the
chloride, thiocyanate, sulphite, thiosulphate. sulphate, ferro-
cyanide (Jlxed ammoma). No other salts need oe enumerated.

For technical purposes, it is sufficient to make the f oUowing
tests : —

1. Volatile Ammonia, — Dilute 20 c.c. of gas-liquor with 100
c.c. water, add 30 c.c. of normal hydrochloric acid, and boil till
aU CO2 and H^S is expelled. Titrate back with seminormal
alkali, employing the ordinary indicators. If the liquor is too
much coloured to see the change of the indicator, dilute it with
water or employ litmus paper. Or else run 10 c.c. of the gas-liquor
into a beaker containing 260 c.c. water, add 2 drops methyl orange
solution (1 : 1000), and titrate at once in the cold with normal
hydrochloric acid. If the indicator is destroyed by H2S, add
another drop of it. Each c.c. of normal acid corresponds to
0*01703 g. NHg or to 0'08615 parts NH3 by weight in 100 vols, of
gas-liquor * or to 0*4216 ounces of rectified oil of vitriol (of 93 per
cent. SO4H2) P®r gallon of gas-liquor.

2. Total Ammonia, — Put 20 c.c. of gas-liquor, with about as
much water, into the flask A, Fig. 16, and charge the receivers B
and C with 30 c.c. of normal hydrochloric acid previously diluted
to twice its volume. The greater portion of this mixture should
be cont$kined in the U-tuoe B. Make the connection and run
3 c.c. concentrated caustic soda solution into A throujgh the pinch-
cock funnel a. Apply heat and keep up a gentle distillation for
one or two hours, when all NH3 will be driven off and absorbed
in B and C. Unite the contents of these vessels and titrate back

with seminormal caustic soda. If a c.c. of this are used, 30 - -o~

indicates the c.c. of acid corresponding to the total ammonia, and
calculated as in test No. 1.

3. Total StUphur.-'Add bromine water to 100 c.c. of liquor till
the colour and smell of bromine are distinct, acidulate with pure

216 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

HCl, boil tail &11 bromine lias been expelled, filter if necesaary,
neatntlifie the solution almoet but not quite with pure sodiorn
carbcsutte, and precipitate the SO^ fonund witb BaCl„ pro-
ceeding as desdiDed p. 110.

Sometimes it mav be desiittble to deduct from the total
sul{Aur tiia,t c^jTbaUv present in the gas-liqaor as suliAiBte.
which is estimated by bouing the tmozidised gaa-liqucv with HCl
and proceeding as above.

4. ThioeyaMate.~Eva.voT2.te 50 c.c of gas-liquor to diyneBS,
heat the residae at 100° C. for three or four hoars, digest it with
strong alcohol, filter, wash on the filter with alcohol, evaporate all
the. alcoholic soluticais to dryness, dissolve in water, filter from

anv residue, add & mixed solution of sulphurous acid and cupric
sulphate, and heat gently, when cu_prous thiocyanate will be
precipitated. Wash the precipitate into a fiask, dissolve it in
nitric acid, boil for some tune, and precipitate the Cu as CuO by
NaOH. The weight of CuO x 0-9561 = the equivalent amount M
(NHiJ CNS (Dyson, S.C.I., 1883, p._231). Or else proceed by
titration, employing a solution contaming 6"236 g. CuSOi, 6HjO per
litre^ 1 C.C, of which is equivalent to 0'00146 g. 8CN=0XX)190 g.
(NH,) SON, which is added to a boiling solution, to which some
sodium bisulphite has been added, till a drop of the mixture,
brought into contact with a drop of a solution of potasaiiuu
ferroojwiide in 20 parts of water, produces immediatdy a brown
coloration (Barnes and Liddell, S.C.I., 1683, p. 132).

AMMONIA MANUFACTURE

B. — Sulphate of Ammonia.

1. HtHmati&n of Ammonia.— Th& average aample, carefully
drawn, is well ground op, passed completely throu^ a sieve nith
10 holes to the liuear mco, and a smaller sample is taken from
this. Weigh 17*03 g. of the latter sample in a stoppred tube,
disisolTe and dilute to SOD c.c, and place CO cc of Uie solution
witiioat filtration into the apparatus. Fig. 16 (p. 216). The test is
carried ont exactly as in A, Ko. 2. Each c.c of the quantity
30--|- is = O'017O8 g. NHs or=l'0 per COTit. The analysis of

snlpbate of ammonia is, however, best performed l^ the bromine
method, in which the NHj is converted into nitrogen. This

method can be carried out in the "Azotometer," or in Lunge's
gas- volumeter (p. 139), if the latter is provided with a " decompos-
ing flask," as shown in Fig. 1 7. The necessary " brominated aoda "
18 prepared by dissolving ] 00 g, 70 per cent, caustic soda in 1 250 g.
water, and cautiously adding 25 g. bromine. The reagent must
be kept in a dark, cool place, but even then does not £eep more
than a few days. The ammonium salt, preferably dissolved in
waiter, is introduced into the outer space of the decomposing flask
a, Fig. IB, and 25 or 30 c.c. brominated soda poured into the inner
vess^ b. The cork /, having been already attached to the

218 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

Yolumeter-tube bv means of a short rabber tube, is pressed tightly
down into the flask a, taking hold of this only by the neck ;
the pressure thus produced is relieved by momentarily puUiag
out the stopper of the volumeter-tap e. If thereby the mercury
in A should sink a little, it is brought back to the zero point by
raising the ** level-tube, while A communicates through d with
the outer air. When the temperatures are equalised and the
mercury is up to the tap, this is put in such a position that a
communicates through c with A ; tnen the flask a is tilted so that
the contents of b run into the outer sxMice; the flask is then
shaken till no more gas is evolved. The mercury levels in A and
the level-tube are made to coincide, after waiting a quarter, or
better, half an hour, in order to cool down the flask. (This may
be expedited by placing a both before and after the operation,
in a large vessel filled with water of the temperature of the
room.) When the levels have been exactly adjusted, as described
p. 140, so as to bring the gas to the volume it would occupy
at 0** and 760 mm. in the dry state, read off the number of cc.
of gas in A; each cc. =00012818 g. N=0'0015582 g. NH3 (this
includes the necessary correction for absorption or incomplete
evolution of N). In order to save sJl calculations, dissolve
1*558 g. sulphate of ammonia in 100 cc. of water, and employ
10 cc =0*1558 g. for each test: in this case eacn cc. of gas
contained in A=l per cent. NHa.
2. Thiocyanate, — G/. p. 216, A, No. 4.

O. — Liquor AmmonisB,

This is mostly sold by specific gravity, the relation of which
to the percentage of NH3 is shown in the subjoined table, No. 1.

The empyrefumatic substances in liquor ammoniae are detected
qualitatively by the smeU on exact neutralisation with sulphuric
acid. The pyridine bases (which do not redden phenolphthalein)
can be tested for by the method of Pennock ana Morton (Joum,
Amer. Chem. Soc,y vol. xxiv., p. 377). Neutralise 100 cc of the
liquor exactly by sulphuric acid, employing methyl orange as
indicator and cooling tne vessel used from the outside ; distu into
a flask charged with 30 cc water until this volume has increased
to about 100 cc, add phenolphthalein and a solution of mercuric
chloride until the liquid is decolorised, then a few more drops of
the mercury solution (thereby precipitating the NHs), filter, and
titrate with decinormal acid and methyl orange, each cc of
which =00079 g. pyridine.

The testing of liquid ani/monia, as sent out in iron bottles, is
described in Tech. Meth.^ vol. ii.

AMMONIA MANUFACTURE

219

1. SPBOIFIO ORAVimiS OF SOLUTIONS OF AMMONIA

AT 16°. (Ijttii£re and Wiemlk.)

Specific Gravity.

Per cent. NH3.

1 litre contains
grams NH3 at 15°.

Correction of

specific gravity

fordbl'C.

i-ooo

0-00

0*00

0*00018

0*996

1-14

11*34

0*00019

0-990

2*31

22*87

0*00020

0*985

3*65

34*97

0-00021

0*980

4*80

47*04

0*00023

0*976

6*06

58-99

0*00024

0*970

7*31

70*91

0-00025

0*966

8*59

82*89

0*000265

0*960

9*91

96-13

0*00029

0*966

11*32

108*11

0-000316

0*960

12*74

121*03

0-00034

0*946

14*17

133*91

0-000365

0*940

15*63

146-92

0-00089

0*936

17*12

160-07

0*00041

0*930

18*64

173-35

0-00042

0*926

20*18

186-67

0-000445

0*920

21*75

200-10

0-00047

0*915

23*35

213-65

0-000496

0*910

24*99

227-41

0-00052

0*905

26*64

241-09

0-000545

0*900

28*33

254-97

0-00067

0*896

30*03

268*77

0-000595

0*890

31*73

^82-40

0*00061

0*885

33*67

297-98

0-00063,

0-880

36-60

313-28

0-00066

220 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

2. SPBOIFIO

OF SOLUTZOMS OF OOWUXBXJIAL

AMMONIUM CARBON ATB, AT ir O. (Limffe and Smith.)

DegNM
Twaddell.

DegTBM

Bftaxn^.

Specific Gnvlty
at 16^

Per cent.

OomxnerdAl

Aramaniam C«r>

bonate.

Change of

Spedflc Oiavity

fbr±rc.

1

0-6

1-005

1-66

0-0002

2

1-4

1-010

3-18

0-0002

3

2-1

1-016

4-60

0-0003

4

2-7

1-020

6*04

0-0008

5

8-4

1026

7-49

0-0008

6

4-1

1-080

8-98

0-0004

7

4-7

1-036

10-86

0-0004

8

5-4

1-040

11-86

0-0004

9

6-0

1-046

13-36

0-0006

10

6-7

1-060

14-83

0-0006

11

7-4

1-066

16-16

0-0006

12

8-0

1-060

17-70

0-0006

13

8-7

1-066

19-18

0-0006

U

9-4

1-070

20-70

0-0005

16

10-0

1-076

22-25

0-0006

16

10-6

1-080

28-78

0*0006

17

11-2

1-086

26-31

0-0007

18

11-9

1-090

26-82

0-0007

19

12-4

1-095

28-33

0-0007

20

13-0

1-100

29-93

0-0007

21

13-6

1-105

31-77

0-0007

22

14-2

1-110

38-45

0-0007

28

14-9

1-115

36-08

0-0007

24

15-4

1-120

36-88

0-0007

25

16-0

1-126

38-71

0-0007

26

16-5

1-180

40-34

0-0007

27

17-1

1-186

42-20

0-0007

28

17-8

1-140

44-29

0-0007

29

17-9

1-1414

44-90

0-0007

XII. MANUFAOTURB OF OOAL-GAS
(ILLUMINATING GAS).

A. — Ooal-Gas.

For a satisfactory analysis of coal-gas the Orsat apparatus is
not sufficiently accurate, and the gas-burettes of Bunte, Hempel,
Drehschmidt, or Pf eiffer should be used. The following rules are

MANUFACTUftE OF COAL-GAS 221

taken from the ^Hriyate notes, printed for Professor Bunte's
students, with hiB permission.

The ajialysis is performed by means of Bunte burettes, which
must satisfy the following conditions :— The capillary tube below
the bottom tap must not allow any water to come out, even on
shaking. The upper (three-way) tap must be made so as to shut
off communication with anv one of the three outlets. <The Greiner-
Friedrichs patent tap, with two oblique bores, as shown in Fig. 15,
admits of doing this without any difficulty.) The taps should
be greased with a mixture of 2 parts para-^m, 2 parts bees' wax,
andf 10 parts taUow, and they must be tight even in a strong
vacuum. The confining water must have the temperature of the
room, and this must remain unchanged during the whole time
occupied by the work. The burette must be held only at die top
funnel or at the capillary tubes. The correctness of its jnraduation
must be controUed ojr running out its contents of water m portions
of 10 C.C., and weighing these. When one of the components of
the gas has been absorbed, first allow the water to rise from
below and then adiust the pressure by allowing water to run in
from the top funnel. To do this, fill it to the mark, open the tap
and wait a minute, imtil the surface of the water inside the burette
remains constant.

To take a sample of the gas to be tested, employ either an
empty burette, or one filled with water. In the tormer case,
connect the top tap ^the funnel being charged with water) side-
ways with the gas-holder or pipe, the bottom tap being open, and
allow the gas to pass through, until it has driven out all the air ;
then shut first tne bottom tap and immediatelv afterwards the
top tap. In the second case ml the burette witn water, connect
the top tap with the gas-holder or pipe, open the bottom tap,
until tne water has sunk a little below tne zero mark, then shut
first the top tap and afterwards the bottom tap.

If the gas is at a lower pressure than the atmospheric pressure,
take the sample by means of a rubber bellows, or a water aspirat-
ing bottle, or a water-pump, and connect then with the bottom
capillary.

Mecuurmg the gas in the burette. — Adjust the three-way tap so
that all its bores are closed, fill the funnel with water up to the
mark, connect the rubber tube of the pressure bottle (levelling
bottleX previously entirely filled with water, with the bottom tap,
and allow the water to rise up to about 0*2 c.c. above the zero
mark. Now open the three-way tap, whereupon a little gas
escapes and the pressures are equalised. The water then usually
stands at the zero mark ; \i not, read the actual volume and. calcu-
late from this. Then turn the three-way tap, after having put a
short rubber tub6 on its lateral outlet, so as to run a little water
into this, and close the tube by a smaU i)iece of glass rod. As
long as the tap is not used, it remains in this position.

222 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

I'nJtfrodMCliofn, of the ahtorhmg liquids, — Draw off the confining
liquid by means of the aspirating lx>ttle, holding the bottom tap
fast in its position, and shutting it at once when the water has got
down to the capillary. TsJec the rubber tube off and draw uie
liquid back into the aspirating bottle, lest it should svphon itself
off. Then pour the absorbing liquid into a smsdl porcelam capsule,
and allow it to rise in the burette.

The individual constituents are estimated, seriaiiim^ as
foUows : —

1. Carbon Dioxide, CO2, by absorption with a solution of
caustic Dotash, 1 in 3 water— that is, specific gravitv 1*23. Of this
1 C.C. takes up 90-100 c.c. COj. It is sufficient, if the inside of the
burette is once wetted with" the solution. Afterwards water is
allowed to enter from below and to run in from the top, to wash
the glass; then the normal pressure is re-estabJished and the
volume read off. In the case of crude gas the H2S must be first
removed by a tube containing pumice soaked with cupric sulphate.

2. Heavy kydrocarhoM^ CmH„. — Draw off the confining water
as completeiv as possible, rinse off the potash solution with a little
water (which is also drawn off), allow about 10 c.c. of water,
saturated with bromine, to enter, and shake the burette. When
the space above the liquid ceases to show the brown colour of the
bromme, draw off the liquid and replace it by fresh bromine
water. Finally, in order to absorb the bromine vapour, draw
about 1 C.C. of caustic potash solution into the burette, shake this
up in the burette, allow a little water to run in at the top,
establish the normal pressure, and read off the volume. Thus all
the Uluminants are absorbea— e.e., ethylene and the other un-
saturated hydrocarbons, also benzene vapour.

3. Oxygen is absorbed by drawing in about 2*5 c.c. of a solution
of pyrogaiiol (1 to 5 water) and after this 7*5 c.c. caustic potash
solution (1 : 3). Shake well for five minutes, run in water through
the funnel until the pressure is equalised, shake again, and con-
tinue this' until no more water wul enter the burette. Run off
the dark liquid at the bottom, allowing water to run in at the
top, so that a layer of clear water remains at the top, which aDows
a correct reading after re-establishing the pressure.

Accurate estimations of oxvgen are made by titration with
potassium iodide, manganous chloride, and thiosulphate, as des-
cribed in Tech, Meth,, vol. ii.

4. Carbon monoxide, — Draw off the confining water, wash
with more water, draw in 10 c.c. ammoniacal solution Of cuprous
chloride (made by dissolving 200 g. commercial cuprous chloride
and 2Q0 ammonium chloride in 750 water, placing a copper sjHral
in the bottle and before use mixing 3 vols, of this solution "mth 1
vol. liquor ammomse specific ^vity 0*905), shake for one minute,
draw off the solution, replace it by a fresh quantity, shake again,
and repeat this procedure at least twice. After the last removal

MANUFACTURE OF COAL-GAS 223

of the absorbent run through the funnel 3 or 4 c.c. concentrated
hydrochloric add, and then a little water, which forms a layer at
the top. Draw off the liquid, wash with water, draw in 1 or 2 c.c.
concentrated potash solution, shake up, allow some water to enter,
re-establish the normal pressure, and take the reading.

6. Hydroaen. — ^The gas now contains nothing but Ji, CH4, and
N.^ The hydrogen is estimated by fractional combustion, for
which purpose a second burette (B) is needed. Measure in the
first burette (A} 22 to 25 c.c. of the residual ffas under normal
pressure, and mix with air for burning the hydrogen. For this
purpose open &:st the bottom tap, then the top tap, so as to com-
municate outwards, whereupon water will run out and air enter.
When the level of the water has gone down to about 5 c.c.
below 0, quickly shut the top tap and after this the bottom tap,
mix the gases oy shaking, regulate the pressure to that of the
atmosphere plus that of the column of water in the funnel, and
read the volume. Now till burette B up to the capillary and
connect both three-way taps, interposing a paUadivm tube C
between them. is a tube of glass of high melting point, 10 c.c.
long, 3 mm. bore, and 5 mm. thick. It contains 100 mm. of
palladium wire, 0'3 mm. thick, folded into four and introduced
into the central part of tube C. Bv heating this part of the tube,
it is made to collapse and to hold the wire fast ; the remaining
portion of C is loosely filled with long fibrous asbestos. The
connection between C and the capillaries of A and B is made by
short, thick- walled rubber tubing.

Now turn both three-way taps so that both are closed, fill the
funnel of burette A with water, lower the pressure by opening .
the bottom tap for a moment, turn both three-way taps at the
same time and quicklv, so that C communicates with the interior
of both burettes, and heat C. The air in C thus increases its
volume, and forces the water in the capiUaries back into both
burettes. Now connect the rubber tube of the pressure bottle
with the lower tap of A, open this tap, heat C at its narrowed
part until the small flame turns yellow, and open the lower tap
of B, so that the gas passes from A through C into B in a moder-
ately quick current. The water should issue from B in a con-
tinuous jet, not in single drops, and the palladium wire should
not become red-hot on the side where the gas enters : otherwise
some methane would be burnt together with the hydrogen. As
soon as the water has got to the top of burette A, quickly shut
first the bottom tap of A and then that of B, and syphon the gas
back from B to A as described above. After cooling, the pressure
in A is made equal to the normal ; the volume is then read, and
the contraction ascertained.

Example : 100 c.c. coal gas, taken for analysis, after absorbing
CO2, heavy hydrocarbons, O and CO. left 85 c.c. Of this 22'2 c.c.
were transferred to burette A, ana diluted with air to 105*3.

224 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

After the combustion the yolume was 86*3, showing a contraction
of 19*0. Calculating this upon 100 c.c. of the original gas, we find
19-0 X 86 _^^.^

~22^" -^^®-

Q ^ 72*8
Therefore the hydrogen amounts to — = — =48*5 per cent.

As a final control, estimate the oocygen left after combustion ;
it must be less than that oiriginaUy employed by two-thirds of the
contraction observed.

6. Meihcme is estimated, together with hydrogen, by burning
another portion of the gas remaining after the operations 1 to 4,
in the "explosion burette." For this, measure on 12 to 15 c.c. of
this gas, draw in an excess of air, shake up, ascertain the volume,
draw off the confining water, explode by means of an electric
sxMirk (generated by a battery and induction coil), ascertain the
contraction, let 1 or 2 c.c. potash solution run down inside the
burette, and s^ter this, slowly, some water, adjust the pressure
and ascertain the total contraction, which is equal to H2O+CO2.
From this deduct the amount corresponding to the hydrogen found
in No. 5 ; one-third of the remaining contraction corresponds to
the methane, for 1 vol. CH4-H2 vols. Oj^O vols. COg+O vols. H2O.

Example : Besidual gas employed 12*7 c.c. (forming part of
the 86 c.c. remaining after the absorption of CO2, CmH„, O2, and
CO); after addition of air =104*1, tnerefore air employed =91 '4.
After the explosion 78*9 c.c. gas; therefore contraction =25*2;

calculated upon the total gas - ^^Iff ^ = 168-8. From this deduct

the contraction due to hydrogen, according to No. 5, = 72*8 ; this
leaves for the methane a contraction of 168*8 -72*8=96*0, or one-
third of it =32*0 per cent, methane.

7. Nitroqen is represented by liie deficit from 100 after esti-
mating aU the other constituents. Suppose we have found : —

From No. 1, 2*0 per cent, (by volume CO)
„ „ 2, 4*0 „ heavy hydrocarbons
„ „ 3, 0*4 „ O2
„ „ 4,J^ „ CO

Together 15*0 „
From No. 5, 48*0 „ Hg
„ „ 6, 32*0 „ CH4

95*0
Leaving 5*0 „ for Nj

')

The estimation of ethylene, benzene, acetylene, naphthalene,
hydrogen sulphide, total sulpnur, anmionia, cyanogen, etc., is
described in Lunge-Keane's Tech. Meth, of Chem, Anal.^ vol. ii.

MANUFACTURE OF COAL-GAS 226

The calorific power of coal-gas is best ascertained by means
of the Juncker's calorimeter, which is always sold with instruc-
tions for use.

B. Purifying llfaterial (Spent Oxide).

1. Cyanogen (Bueb). — Boil 20 g. of an average sample of spent
oxide (from which the sulphur has been previously extracted as
below) or the same quantity of pressed " cyanide mud " witii 100
c.c. caustic notash solution (specific graviW 1'26) and 200 c.c.
water for half an hour, dilute to 1010 c.c. (reckoning 10 c.c. for
the volume of the solid substance) and pass through a dry filter.
Take 25 c.c. of the filtrate, add 60 c.c. water and 10 c.c. dilute
sulphuric acid (1 : 10), and titrate with ziric solution. This solution
is made as follows : — Dissolve 10'2 g. of pure crystallised zinc
sulphate (ZnS04, THgO), together with 10 c.c. sulphuric acid of
specific gravity 17 in water, and make up to 1 litre, and compare
tnis with a freshly made solution of 10 g. pure crystallised
potassium f errocyanide in 1 litre, in the f oUowmg manner : To
25 c.c. of the ferrocyanide solution add 60 c.c. water and 10 c.c.
dilate sulphuric acid. This mixture is titrated with the zinc
solution, testing for the completion of the reaction by drops put
on to filter paper (preferably Schleicher and SchiQls, No. ^1,
mark S) soaked with a 1 per cent, solution of ferric chloride.
The end of the reaction is reached when no blue coloration is
produced on the paper.

Other methods for the estimation of cyanides (described by
Knublauch and by Drehschmidt) are given in Tech, Metk,, vol. i.
and vol. ii.

2. Svlphv/r, — Extract 15 g. of the air-dried mass in a Soxhlet
apparatus with 100 c.c. carbon disulphide in a 200 c.c. round-
bottomed flask of known weight. Heat on a water-bath, con-
densing the vapours b^ a reflux condenser, until twentv extractions
have been made. Distil off the 082^ remove the last portions
by hot air. and after cooling again weign the flask. The difference
between tne weighings = S.

Sometimes it is desirable to know the amount of S which on
burning tlie oxide forms SO2, since a certain quantity of S is
always retained by lime, etc., on burning the spent mass. For
this purpose Ff eiffer bums 1 g. of the sample, by putting a piece
of tinder in a litre flask filled with oxygen ana previou^ charged
wilji 25 or 30 c.c. of normal caustic soda solution. Finally he
adds 1 c.c. neutral 30 per cent, hydrogen peroxide and titrates
back wiiJi standard HCl and methyl orange. Each c.c. of the
normal soda solution consumed corresponds to 1*6 per cent, of
S burnt.

Processes for estimating all the essential constituents of spent
oxide are described in Tech, Meth,^ vol. ii.

226 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

Xin. OALOIUM CARBIDE AND AOETYLENfi.

A* — Raw Materials.

(a) (7o^, see p. 96*

(b) Limestone, see p. 155*

B.— Technical Calcium Carbide.

(a) The sanm^mg in this case has to be done with special care,
since it is anything but easy to obtain a small sample representing
the real avera^^ quality. The sample is quickly crusned in an
iron mortar, provided with a rubber cover, or in a coffee-mill,
and the powder must be kept free from contiact with air.

(b) The estimation oj ike yield qf gas should always be made
by actual measurement of the gas, not by loss of weight. Take
50 ^. carbide, and put it into a glass tube, 2 or 3 cm. wide inside,
which is connected with the gas-generatmg flask (260 c.c.) by a
rubber tube so that the carbide can be dropped in small quantities
into the flask. 160 c.c. water, previously saturated with acetylene,
are first placed in the flask, uie cork of which is also provided
with an exit-tube connected with a measuring bottle. This bottle
holds 20 litres, and has a division on which ^ litre can be read
off. It is connected by means of a lateral neck just over the
bottom and by a rubber tube with a level-bottle of uie same size,
filled with water saturated with acetylene. By raising the level
flask, the water is forced into the measuring flask up to its neck ;
during the time the gas is given off, the level flask is lowered, so
that there is never anv notable pressure in the measuring bottle.
When all the gas has been coUected in the latter, the level-bottle
is placed so that the water is exactly at the same level in both
bottles, and about two hours are allowed for the temperature to
reach that of the surrounding air. Read the thermometer and
barometer, and reduce the volume of the gas by the table, pp. 38
to 44, to the normal state, re^rding it as saturated with moisture.
If , as usual, the reduction is to be made not to O"*, but to 16** C,
this can be done with sufficient accuracy by the formula :—

V=j^(U0-2-0-6«)i^

where V is the volume at 16^ v the volume at f, and B the (cor-
rected height) of the barometer. (Cf . Tech. MetL, vol. ii.)

(c) Impurities.— It is best to test for these, not in the carbide,
but in the acetylene given off from it. Put 70 or 80 g. carbide,
crushed to the size of a pea, into a previously weired, well-dri«i,

MANUPACTUttE OP PEfttlLlSEtlS m

half -litre flask, and weigh it on an ordiaary balance which turns
to 0*1 g. The cork of this flask is fitted with a dropping funnel,
contracted at the outlet, with fflass tap, and with a side tube
connected with a ten-bulfc tube, like that shown in Fig. 8, p. 120.
The latter contains 75 cm. of a 2 to 3 per cent, solution of sodium
hypochlorite. Run from the funnel three to seven drops of water
on to the carbide, and shake the flask gently from time to time.
The gas should all be liberated in three or four hours -it may,
if required, be measured, or else allowed to escape. Then the
flask IS filled up to its neck, so as to drive all the gas into the
bulb-tube, and m the contents of the latter the phosphoric acid
which has been formed bv the hypochlorite from the hydrogen
phosphide contained in the gas, is estimated by the ordinary
ma^esia method.

If it is required to estimate the sulphur also, which escapes
principally as H2S^ divide the contents of the bulb- tube in two
portions, estimate in one of these the phosphoric acid as above,
and in the otiier the sulphuric acid, formed from the H^S, aS
BaS04.

XIV. EXAMINATION OF THE RAW MATERIALS
AND PRODUCTS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF
FERTILISERS.

iV.jB.— This section is based on the resolutions agreed to at
the Fifth International Congress of Applied Chemistry at Berlin
(1903).

A. — Sampling.

Samples must be taken out of every tenth sack in the case
of shipments in bulk^ in at least ten places, by means of the
samplmg-auger, descnbed on pp. 249, 250; in the case of ship
cargoes, from every fiftieth tub ; the total weight to be about
300 g. for each of the three normal samples. In the case of
unequal composition, the samples must be ground and mixed ; in
the case of moist fertilisers, this must be done by hand.

B. — Moisture.

Moisture in crude phosphates, bone charcoal, etc., is estimated
by drying 10 g. at 100"* up to constancy of weight ; in the case of
gypsum, during three hours. If the substance alters its percentage
of moisture during grinding, the moisture must be determined both
in the coarsely crushed and in the finely ground sample, and the

228 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

result of the analysis is to be calculated on the original coarsely
crushed sample.

C.^— l!he Insoluble Matter^

The insoluble matter is detetinined in 10 g. of the sample^ (tt)
When dissolving in mineral acids, after rendering the silica
insoluble by heating on the water-bath during several hours, or
on the air-bath to 120''; the^ residue must be ignited. (6) When
dissolving in Water the residue taust be dried at 100** tip to
constancy of Weight*

3C)t — Phosphoric Acid*

i. I^reparation of the SolutionSi

(a) Phosphates soluble in wafe?*.— Shake 20 s. in a litre flask
with about 800 g^ Water for half an hour, and fill up to the mark.
Solutions of so-called double superphosphates must be boiled with
addition of nitric acid (10 c.c. concentrated nitric acid to 25 c.c.
of the solution) before precipitating the phosphoric acid, in order
to convert any pyrophosphoric acid present into orthophosphoric
acid.

(b) Phosphates soluble in Ammonium Citrate are treated
according to Fetermann's method. With superphosphates con-
taining upwards of 20 per cent. P2O5, take 1 g., when containing
12 to 20 per cent. PaOsi 2 g. ; if there is less than 10 per cent.,
P^Os, and, in the case of composite fertilisers, 4 g. for each
sample. Grind it first dry, then with 20 to 25 c.c. water, decant
on to a filter, and wash with water until the volume of the filtrate
is about 200 c.c. If the filtrate is not quite clear, add a drop of
nitric acid. Put the filter and residue into a 250 flask, add 100
c.c. of the ammonium citrate solution (prepared as below), digest
about fifteen hours at the ordinary temperature, with frequent
shaking, then one hour at 40°, allow to cool, fill up to the mark,
take 50 c.c. of the filtmte and 50 c.c. of the above aqueous solu-
tion, mix these, boil with 10 c.c. concentrated nitric acid for ten
minutes, and estimate the total phosphoric acid soluble in water
and in citrate by the molybdenum or the citrate method.

Preparation of the Ammonium Citrate solution. — ^Dissolve 500
g. citnc acid in water, neutralise with ammonia, allow to cool,
reduce the specific gravity to 1*09, and add to a litre of this
solution 60 c.c. liquor ammoniae, specific gravity 0'92. The
specific gravity of the final solution should be from 1*082 to 1*083.

(c) Total Phosphoric yl ci^Z.— Boil 5 g. with a mixture of three
parts hydrochloric acid, specific gravity 1*12, and 1 part nitric
acid, specific gravity 1*20, or with 20 c.c. concentrated nitric acid
and 50 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid for half an hour and make
up to 260 C.C.

MANUFACTURE OF FERTILISERS 229

(d) In l^homas-Slag Pliospftates the phosphoric acid is esti-
mated in the portion wnich passes through a 2 millimetre sieve,
but the result is calculated upon the whole sample, including the
coarser portion. The following estimations are maae : —

1 . P%09phoric (tcid soluble in citric dcid, — Shake 5 g. Thomas
phosphate in a half-litre flask, previously charged with 5 c.c.
alcohol, with a 2 jjer cent, solution of pure citric acid during half
an hour at 17J°, in a revolving agitator which makes thirty to
forty revolutions per minute.

2. Total phosphoric acid, — Soak 10 g. Thomas phosphate (for
the analysis of fine flour passed through sieve No. 100 = 0*19
mm. mesh) in a half-litre flask with 5 c.c. water, then boil with
50 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid half an hour, stirring fre-
quently, and fill up to the mark.

2. Bzaminatlon of the Solutions.

For phosphm^c acid, according to one of the following
methods : —

(a) Molybdenum method, according to Wagner. To 25 or 50 c.c.
solution, free from silica and containing from 0*1 to 0'2 g. P^Os,
add so much concentrated solution of ammonium nitrate (750
g. per litre) and so much molybdenum solution (150 g. ammonium
mwybdate, dissolved in 1 litre water and poured into 1 litre nitric
acid of specific gravity 1*2) that the total liquid contains 15 per
cent, anmionium nitrate, and for each 0*1 g. P2O5 not less than 50
c.c. molybdenum solution. • Heat to 80° or 9(f for ten minutes,
j)ut aside for an hour^ filter, wash the precipitate with dilute solu-
tion of ammonium nitrate (150 g. (NH4)NO3-l-10 c.c. nitric acid
in 1 Utre) until there is no reaction for calcium, pierce the filter,
wash the precipitate into a beaker by means ot a 2^ per cent,
liquor ammoniae, dissolve it by stirring, and add so much ammonia
that the total volume is 75 c.c. Then add for each 0*1 g. P2O5
10 c.c. of magnesium mixture (55 ^. crystallised magnesium
chloride -I- 70 g. anmionium chloride, dissolved in 1 litre of 2*5 per
cent, liquor ammoniae), in single drops, stirring constantljr, cover
the beaker, allow to stand for two hours, filter the precipitate,
wash it with 2*5 per cent, ammonia until the reaction tor chlorine
ceases, and dry at 100". Detach the precipitate from the filter,
place it in a platinum crucible, add the rolled-up filter, and
carbonise it in a covered crucible ; then heat the crucible for ten
minutes in an upright position over the Bunsen flame and for five
minutes on the olow-pipe.

(b) Citrate method.— In the case of aqueous solutions of super-
phosphate, employ 50 c.c. citrate solution for 50 c.c. of the phos- .
phate solution, corresponding to 1 g. substance ; in that of acid
solutions of bone meal, fish guano, Thomas-slag, flour, etc.. take
100 c.c. of the citrate solution for 50 c.c. of the phosphate solution
(=f g. substance). The citrate solution is made by dissolving llOQ

230 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

g. pure citric acid in water, adding 4 litres of 24 per cent, liquor
ammonise, and making up to 10 litres. After adding the citrate
solution, add at once 25 c.c. magnesium mixture (550 ^. magnesium
chloride + 1050 ammonium chloride, dissolved in 6i litres water
+ 3^ litres 27 per cent, liquor ammonise), and shake or stir for
half an hour. Filter the precipitate, preferably bv means of a
Gooch or Neubauer crucible (see below), rinse the beaker with 5
pner cent, liquor ammonise, and wash the precipitate five or six
times with the same solution, using a filter pump. Dry the
crucible on a hot plate until the mass begins to crack, ignite for
three to five minutes (preferably in a Roessler furnace), and allow
to cool in a desiccator. After weighing, the crucible may at once
be used for a fresh determination, without removing the precipi-
tate, and thus thirty or forty estimations can be made in it with-
out renewing the asbestos filter.

This method involves several errors, which, however, com-
pensate one another, so that when the above details are strictly
adhered to, the final result is perfectly correct. According to the
resolutions of the Union of the German Agricultural Research
Stations in 1903, the citrate method is the only one admissible
for all fertilisers, except crude phosphates.

The preparation of a Gooch crucible — that is, a platinum
crucible with platinum sieve and asbestos filter— is alittle trouble-
some ; it is described in TecK Metk,, vol. i.

The Neubauer crucible (sold by N. L. C. Heraeus, Hanau), is
similar to the Gooch crucible, but contains a platinum sponge
filter on the sieve. It is ready for use, as obtained from the
dealers, and is much more convenient than a Gooch crucible.

E. — Free Acids.

(a) The total free acid is estimated by titration with caustic
soda solution and methyl orange.

(b) Free phosphoric acid is estimated gravimetrically in the
alcoholic extract, as described above.

F. — Ferric Oxide and Alumina.

In Germany the accepted method is that of E. Glaser. Dis-
solve 5 g. phosphate in 25 c.c. nitric acid (specific gravity 1 '2) -I- 12*5
c.c. hydrochloric acid (specific gravity 1'12), and dilute to 600
c.c. Put 100 c.c. ( = 1 g. of the phosphate) in a 250 c.c. flask, add
26 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acia (specific gravity r84) : after
five minutes' shaking aad 100 c.c. 95 per cent, alcohol, allow to
cool, fill u{) to the mark with alcohol, shake well, and fill up again.
After waiting for half an hour, filter, heat 100 c.c. of the filtrate in
a platinum dish until the alcohol is driven off, transfer to a beaker,
add 60 c.c. water^ and heat to boiling. Kemove the flame, add
fTHs tilljthe reaction is alkaline, boil off t}ie excess of NH3, allow

MANUFACTURE OF FERTILISERS 231

to cool, filter, wash with hot water, ignite, and weigh. The
weight lound is assumed to be aluminium phosphate + ferric phos-
phate, or 50 per cent, of it=Fe203+Al203.

Q. — ^Nitrogen.

1. Nitric-mtrogen is estimated gas-volumetrically by the
nitrometer (pp. 136 and 139), or by Schlcesin^-Grandeau's method
{Tech, MetK. vol. ii.), or by one of the methods for reducing it
to NH3. The following method is due to Ulsch. Into a flat-
bottomed half-litre flask put 25 c.c. of the aqueous nitrate
solution (which ought to contain at most 0'5 g. 1CN03=0*4 g.
!N'aN03) and 10 c.c. dilute sulphuric acid (1 vol. concentrate
acid -i- 2 vols, water), add 5 g. commercial ^'ferrum hydrogenio
reductum " (iron reduced by nydrogen), and close the flask wiUi
a {)ear-shaped glass vessel of 25 c.c. capacity filled with water,
which at the same time serves as a reflux condenser. Heat
first cautiously, then more strongly, at least for half a minute to
full boiling (altogether five minutes), dilute with 50 c.c. water,
add 20 c.c. caustic soda solution (specific gravity 1*25), and distil
the NH^ formed into titrated hydrochloric or sulphuric acid.
The distillation may be finished in five to seven minutes after the
commencement of the boiling. By titrating back the excess of
acid the quantity of NH3 is ascertained : each c.c. normal acid
saturated =0-01401 g. N or 0*06302 HNCij or 0*10116 KNO3 or
0-08606 NaNOa.

2. Ammonia/cal nitrogen^ cf, p. 217. Preferably distil with
freshly calcined magnesia, 3 g. to 1 g. NH3. In the case of
ammoniacal superphosphates, the solution prepared as on p. 228
should be used.

3. Total nitrogen is estimated in presence of nitrates by
Ejeldahl-Jodlbauer's method. Place 1 s, substance in a 350 c.c
flask of difi&cultly fusible glass, slowly add 30 c.c. phenolsulphuric
acid (made by dissolving 200 g. P2O6 in 500 c.c. concentrated
sulphuric acid, and 40 g. phenol in 500 c.c. concentrated sulphuric
acia, and uniting the two solutions, after cooHnff), shaking con-
tinuously, and cooling by placing the flask in cold wat«r. When
finished, agitate for another half -hour or hour, add a drop of
mercury (about 1 g.), and then gradually 2 to 3 g. dried zinc dust,
with good agitation and cooling. Allow to stand for one or two
hours : then boil until the solution has become clear and colour-
less, allow to cool, wash with water into a distilling flask, add 110
c.c. of caustic soda solution of specific ^avity 1*285 (whidi must
be free from nitrogen compounds), distil the NH» into normal
hydrochloric acid, and estimate it by retitrating. Tne calculation
is made as above, svh G, 1.

Damp substances are grouiid up with a little gypsum befor^
^ding the phenolsulphuric acid.

232 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

4. Organic nitrogen^ in the absence of nitrates and ammonium
salts, is estimated according to Kjeldahl-Wilfarth's method. Put
1 g. substance in a 150 c.c. long-necked flask of Bohemian glass,
aoa a drop of mercury and 25 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric add,
to a litre of which 200 ff. P2O5 and 15 g. E^Of have been
added. Heat at first slowly, then to violent boilmg, putting the
flask, or several flasks, on a wire gauze in a slanting position.
The whole is best placed on a sheet of lead with tumed-up edges,
covered with a thick la^er of sand and placed under a nood, so
that no damage is done if a flask is cracked. In the case of badly
frothine liquids put a little parafl^ in the flask and close this
loosely by a Kreusler's stopper, «.«., a glass tube drawn out below
into a long point, and sealed at the bottom. Continue the boiling
undl the contents of the flask are quite dear, which may take
half an hour to tiiree hours. Then wash its contents by the aid
of 200 c.c. water into a half -litre flask, add 25 c.c. caustic soda
solution of specific gravity 1*285 (free from N) and 1 to 1*5 g. zinc
dust, and distil into titrated HCl, proceeding just as in No. 1.

In the case of substances which cannot be finely ground,
prepare a good average sample bv weighing off 3 to 5 g., boil with
50 to 60 C.C. sulphuric acia and 2 to 3 g. mercury, wash, after
cooling, into a 300 c.c. flask, filling this up to the mark, mix by
shaking, and take 100 c.c. for the distillation with caustic soda
and zinc dust.

H. — Potash.

Potash is estimated as in potassium chloride containing
sulphate, p. 203, or by the perchloric acid method, Teck. Mttk,^
vol. i. and vol. ii.

Details for the examination of the various fertilisers, ihid.

XV. ALUMINA PRBPARATIONS.

A. — Raw Slaterlals.

1. Kaolin (china day), see p. 236, mb "Clay."

2. Bauoeite (a). — Dry 2*500 g. at 100' for eiffht hours, boil with
30 c.c. of a mixture of 1 part concentrated sulphuric add+l water
with good agitation, until vapours of SO3 begin to escape, allow
to cool, run the paste slowly into 300 c.c. cold water so as to
prevent heating (which would cause a precipitation of Ti02), add
10 c.c. hydrochloric acid, digest six hours with agitation, filter
the solution (a) from the precipitated crude silica and make it,
with the washings, up to 500 c.c. Ignite the crude silica, weigh it,
waporate with 2 c.c. hydrofluoric acid and three drops of mlutQ

ALUMINA PREPARATIONS 233

sulphuric acid, and ignite ; the residue is weighed as ALOs, and
by deducting it from the crude silica we obtain the pure Si02.

(b) Take 200 c.c. of the solution (a) ( = I'OOO g. bauxite), neutral-
ise with sodium carbonate until a slight precipitate begins to
appear, bring this again into solution by adding a few drops of
dilute sulphuric acid, reduce the contained iron to the ferrous state
by NaHSOs or gaseous SO2, dilute to 400 or 450 c.c, boil for two
hours, repla<3ng the evaporated water by an aqueous solution of
SO2. The titcmie acid is thus precipitated. Allow to cool, make
up to 500 c.c, pour through a dry filter and wash the Ti02 with
warm water, containing a little ammonium chloride, but keep the
washings separate from the first filtrate. Dry, ignite, and weigh
the TiOa.

(c) Boil 125 c.c. of the first filtrate obtained in (b) (=0*250 g.
bauxite) till the SO2 has been removed, add a little zinc, dilute
strongly, and estimate the iron by titration with perman^nate,
after having rendered the solution slightly acid by sulphuric acid,
as described p. 152.

(d) Alttmina, Ferric oxide, and Titanic acid toother are
estimated in the first solution (a). Take 25 c.c. of this solution
(= 0*125 g. bauxite), add a little fumins nitric and hydrochloric
acid, dilute considerably, add NH3 in sught excess, boil up for a
moinent, filter, dissolve theprecipitate again in hydrochlonc acid,

Srecipitate again with NBL3, wash, filter, dry, and weigh. By
educting the SiOa found in (a), the TiOa in (b), and the ferric
oxide in (c), we obtain the remainder =^^t^wtwa.

(e) Ignite a fresh sample of dried bauxite for a quarter of an
hour by means of the blow-pipe ; the loss of weight is = chemically
combined water -h organic matter.

B. — Control of Working Conditions.

1. The reddtie from decomposing the bauxite is tested by
boiling 2 g. with 3 c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid -t- 3 c.c water
until the red colour is destroyed, diluting a little, filtering, and
making the filtrate up to 100 c.c. In this we estimate :

(a) Iron in 10 c.c. by reducing it to the ferrous state and
titrating with KMn04, P. 152.

(b) Ferric oxide+Afumina by precipitation with NH3.

(c^ Soluble soda by boiling 20 c.c witn a solution of ammonium
chloride and absorbing the NH3 set free in titrated hydrochloric
acid. •

2. Aluminate solution, — In this we estimate NaaO and AI2O3
in the same operation, as described below for sodium aluminate.

C. — Commercial Products.

1 . Svlphate of Alvmina and Alum : —

(a) EsUTii^tion of Alt^ina — (a) Gravvrif^tric estimation, Dis-

234 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

solve 10 g. in water, dilute to h litre, take 50 c.c. of the clear solu-
tion =1 g. of the suDstance, add anunonia in slight excess, boil up
for a moment, filter, wash, dry the precipitate, ignite, and weign
the ALO3. It is slightlv contaminated with traces of iron, silicate,
and phoephoric acid, which mav be neglected.

0) Volumetric Analysis. — Dissolve 5 g. in water, dilute to ^
litre, take out 50 c.c.=0'5 g. substance, neutralise the free add by
dilute solution of caustic soda (indicator : methyl orange, till the
pink changes to yellow), then add phenolphthalein ana titrate
with stanobBbrd caustic soda solution until the red colour appears.
Each C.C. of the NaOH solution corresponds to 0*1704 g. AI2O3.

^.B. — This method gives only approximate results, unless
a number of precautions, detailed in Tech. Meth,, vol. i., are
observed.

(b) Iron cannot be estimated either gravimetrically or by
titration, on account of its small quantity. Hence it is estimated
colorimetrically by Lunee and Eleler's method. We require for
this a number of smi3l stoppered cylinders of white glass,
13 mm. internal diameter, 17 cm. high, containing 25 c.c. divided
in 0*1 c.c, and a free space of 5 c.c. above the 25 c.c. mark.
Also the following reagents :— (1) a 10 per cent, solution of
potassium thiocyanate ; (2) pure ether ; (3) a solution of 8*630 g.
ammonium-iron-alum and 5 c.c. concentrated sulphuric add in
1 litre; (4) a solution prepared from (3) by diluting it in the
proportion of 1 : 100, so that this solution contains 10 mg. Fe
per litre. It should be kept protected from sunlight, but even
then keeps only for a few days, whereas solution (3), when pro-
tected from air and light, keeps a long time without getting
turbid y (5) pure nitric acid. It is hardly possible to obtain nitric
acid absolutely free from iron, but this does not matter, if it gives
onlv a slight pink colour with potassium thiocyanate, since very
little of it is used, and an equal quantity for the check test as
for the actual test.

Dissolve 1 or 2 g. of the aluminium sulphate, weighed exactly,
in a little water, add exactly 1 c.c. of the pure nitric add (5), heat
a few minutes, allow to cool, and dilute to 50 c.c. Put 5 c.c. of this
solution into one of the colorimeter cylinders, A. {N.B.—Ji this
method is app»lied to estimate traces of iron in sulphuric acid,
this is diluted in the same wa^.) Into a second cylinder, B, put 5
c.c. of dilute nitric acid, obtained by diluting 1 c.c. of (5) to 50
c.c, and a certain, accurately measured quantity of the iron-
alum solution (3), e,g,^ 1 cc Add as much pure water to
cvlinder A as you put iron solution in B, so as to always have
the same degree of dilution in A and B. Then add to both A
and B 5 c.c. of the thiocyanate solution (1) and 10 c.c. of the
ether (2), put the stopper in and shake thoroughly, until the
aqueous layer has become colourless and the red colour has passed
over entirely into the ether, The comparison of the colours in A

ALUMINA PREPARATIONS 235

and £ is most accurate after a few hours, since they deepen a
little on standinjf, but marked differences can be observed at once,
so that three cylinders will suffice, of which A receives the solution
to be tested. £ and C the quantities of iron most nearly approach-
ing to A. The com^rison is made by holding the (flinders a little
distance from a white surface (not putting them down upon it !)
and looking at them from the top downwards. It is then quite
easy to estimate differences of + O'l ca of the iron-alum solution
(5), that is of + 0*001 mg. Fe in the 5 c.c. employed for analysis,
but only when the total quantity of iron does not exceed 2 c.c.
of the solution, that is =0*02 mg. Fe. If there should be more
than this present, the permanganate method, p. 113, is applic-
able.

(c) Free a/dd in aluminium sulphate cannot be directly titrated
by any of the hitherto known indicators. Beilstein and Grosse
proceed as follows : — Dissolve 1 or 2 g. of the sulphate in 5 c.c.
water, add 5 c.c. of a cold saturated solution of ammonium
sulphate, stir fifteen minutes, and precipitate with 50 c.c. 95 per
cent, alcohol. Wash the precipitate with 50 c.c. alcohol, evaporate
the alcohol from the mixed filtrate and washhigs on the water-
bath, and titrate the acid in the residue by decinormal soda
solution aiid phenolphthalein.

(d^ Zmc only occurs occasionally in commercial sulphate of
alumina, but is very injurious. Estimate it by adding to the
solution of the sulphate a sufficient quantity of barium acetate to
precipitate all the sulphuric acid, and precipitating the zinc in the
filtrate as ZnS.

2. Alvmd/nate of Soda : —

(a) Soda amd Alvmina, — Dissolve 2 g. in water, dilute to 100
c.c. and titrate 10 c.c. (=0*2 g. substance) quite hot, with
phenolphthalein as indicator, with fifth normal hydrochloric acid
until the red colour has vanished. The soda only is saturated
at this stage, and each c.c. of the add corresponds to 0*00621 g.
Na^O. Now add a single drop of methyl orange and continue
the titration with the same acia, but at a temperature of 30°, until
the alumina first predpitated has been redissolved and the red
colour has appeared. Each c.c. of add used in this second titra-
tion corresponds to 0*003407 g. AL2O3. The percentage is obtained
directly when emi)loying 0*200 g. substance by multiplying the c.c.
used in the first titration (a) by 3*105= per cent. Na20 and those
used in the second titration (b) by 1*704= per cent. AI2O3.

(b) Insdvble matter is estimated in 10 to 20 g. substance in the
usual manner, but employing "hardened" filtering paper, since
ordinary filter paper would not stand the strongly caustic solution.

(c) Silica is estimated by evaporating with hydrochloric add,
digesting the residue with dilute HCl, filtering, washing, igniting,
and weighing the residue.

3, Gofnnmerewji Mvffnma is either the hydrate or anhydrous,

236 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

In this the silica occurring as an impurity is estimated as in 2 (c) ;
total soda by iniiting at a red heat, digesting with wat^r, heating
with normal HCl, and titrating back the excess of acid ; sdvkle
soda by boiling with 100 c.c. water and titration with normal HCl
and phenolphthalein ; iron in the hydrochloric acid solution as in
No. 1 (b); loss of weight on ignition (=H20 + C02) by heating
for fifteen minutes over the blow-pipe.

XVI. CEMBNT INDUSTRY.

A.— Portland Cement.
1. Baw Materials.

(a) Limestone, — (a) Estimate carbon dioxide^ as described,
p. 166, by titration or by volumetric estimation of CO2, p. 169. It
IS calculated as CO.^. In the presence of considerable quantities
of magnesia (which is considered as an imurious constituent of
cement), estimate it in the hydrochloric acid solution, as on p. 147,
calculate it as MgCOs, and calculate the excess of CO2 as CaCOs.

(/3) Argillaceous residue is the difference between 100 and the
carbonates found in (a). If there is much present, it may be
examined like clay, No. (b).

(b) Clay, — The percentage of coarse sand (quartz) is found by
elutriation. Weigh 50 g. of the coarsely ground, dried average
sample into a rather large porcelain dish, pour over it 100 c.c.
dilute hydrochloric acid (1 concentrated acid +8 water), boil for
about three hours, allow to cool, pour off the acid and direct a jet
of water on to the mass, carefully rubbing it up with the fingers, so
that only claj goes away with the water and pure sand remains
behind. This plan is better than the application of mechanical
elutriating apparatus.

The sand may be sorted by sieves into different sizes, viz., fine
dust (down to 0*026 mm.), dust (0*040 mm.), fine sand (0*20 mm.),
coarse sand (above this).

Complete analysis of clay (cf. Tech, Meth,^ vol. i., p. 568,
et seq,),

1 . Decomposition by rneans of alkaline carbonate, i,e,, a mixture
of equal parts potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate, of
which 6 to 10 §. are required for one part of clay. Dry the clay
at 120", grind it very finely, naix it intimately with the alkaline
carbonate in the platinum crucible itself by means of a platinum
or glass spatula (which is afterwards cleaned with a little car-
bonate)^ and heat in the covered crucible, first slowly, then up to
full, quiet fusion. A good Bunsen or Fletcher burner is prefer-
able to the blow-pix)e for the heating. After cooling heat the l>ottom
of the cn;cible by a small flame to 9, low red heat twice sncces-

CEMENT INDUSTRY 237

sively, in order to facilitate the separation of the fused mass, allow
to cool, pour in a few ac. of water, and heat gentler with a small
flame, until the cake detaches itself from the crucible. Wash it
into a good-sized platinum dish, cover this with a large watch-glass
and heat on the water-bath until the mass has softened and fallen
to powder. Then add an excess of hydrochloric add, remove the
watch-glass, wash its under-surface, and evaporate to dryness on
the water-bath. During the evaporation the mass is stirred with a
glass rod, so as to render the residue powdery. Then heat the
dish in an air-bath to 120*' for an hour, moisten it, after cooling,
with moderately strong hydrochloric acid, allow to stand for an
hour, heat up with water, pour the clear portion through a filter,
and continue this treatment until the residue ceases to yield a
colour with hydrochloric acid. Then transfer it to a filter, wash,
dr^, and ignite it first over a small flame, then to constancy of
weight, and weigh it as silica. It may still contain some titanic
o/dd. This is separated b^ evaporating with hydrofluoric acid and
concentrated sulphuric acid on the water-bath as a residue which
should be tested whether it yields the purple niicrocosmic salt bead
ofTiOj.

The filtrate from the titantic add is divided in two halves.
In one of these estimate alimdria+ ferric oxide by adding pure
liquor ammoniae (free from carbonate) in slight excess, boihng up
for a moment, filtering, washing, and igniting. In the other haU*
estimate the iron by reducing with zinc ana titrating with per-
manganate, c/". p. 113.

In the filtrate from the precipitate of Al^Os-f-FgOs, estimate
calcium by precipitation with ammonium oxalate (p. 147), and in
the filtrate from this magnesium by ammonium nhosphate (p. 147).

2. The Alkalies can be estimated, if desirea, by decomposing
about 5 g. day with hydrofluoric acid ; cf. J!ecA. Meth,

3. Sulphur^ present as sulphates or pyrites, is estimated by
oxidation with sucfua, regia and precipitating the hydrochloric acid
solution with banum chloride, cf, p. 110.

4. Carbon dioocidcy as in the case of limestone, pp. 156 or 169.

5. Loss of weight on ignition over the blow-pipe or a powerful
gas burner gives water + organic matter -I-C02+ sulphur present
as pyrites, etc.

(c) Separation of sUica present as quartz^ and tliat present in
tlieform of silicates, — ^The separation of these two kinds of silica
is frequently demanded in so-called "rational analysis of clay."
It can be effected by the process of Lunge and Millberg {Z,
am/gew. Chem,^ 1897, p. 393), on the basis of the observation
that extremely finely divided quartz is dissolved by concentrated
caustic soda solution, but not oy a 5 per cent, solution of sodium
carbonate, whilst the latter dissolves the silica, separated from
silicates by strong acids in an amorphous state, when heated on
the water-bath for half an hour. This is appliea to the separation

238 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

of the two modifications of silica as follows. Heat 5 g. of clay
(dried at 120°) with dilute sulphuric add (50 c.a concentrated
acid +100 C.C. water) to boiling in a porcelain or platinum dish,
covered with a watch-glass, until the water has been driven on
and fumes of SOg b^gin to escape, allow to cool, dilute with water,

Eour off the liquid, moisten the residue with hydrochloric acid,
eat for a quarter of an hour, filter, and wash. Wa^ the moist
residue, which contains a mixture of both modifications of SiO^,
into a porcelain dish, make up the solution to about 250 c.c, add
about 12*5 g. pure anhydrous sodium carbonate, and heat on the
water-bath for half an hour. Then pour off the clear liquid and
repeat the treatment with 5 per cent, solution of Na2C03 three
times. Finally, wash the insoluble matter on to a filter and wash it
thoroughly witn water containing a little alcohol. The dried and
i^ted residue consists of the SiC, present as quartz; the
difference between this and the total SiOg found in (b) 1 is the
SiOjj present as silicates.

2. Control of the Working Oonditlons.

The crude mixture is tested for its percentage of clay and
calcium carbonate like limestone ; com^re A, 1 . Usually the esti-
mation of CO2 (pp. 156 or 169) is sufficient.

The clinker is analysed like the finished cement, if this \a

required.

8. Ooxnmeroial Oexnent.

Ignite 1 g. cement in a platinum crucible over the blow-pipe for
fifteen minutes, decompose with hydrochloric acid, filter from the
insoluble matter, fuse tnis with sodium carbonate^ dissolve the melt
in water, and unite this solution with the nitrate previously
obtained. In this solution the following estimations are made :—

(a) Silica is determined by boiling down the united solutions
and filtering off the precipitated SiOs. The filtrate is again concen-
trated by boiling, and any Si02 that separates is united with the
first portion. Dry the total (crude) silica, heat on the blow-pipe
for half an hour, and weigh. Then heat with 10 c.c. hydrofluoric
acid and four drops concentrated sulphuric acid till fumes cease
to be given off and deduct the residue from the crude SiO^;
the portion tnus removed by volatilisation represents the
real SiOjj.

(b) Divide the united filtrates in two halves. In one of these
estimate the Sesquioocides, Ai203 4-Fe203, by precipitation with
pure liquor ammoniae, as on p. 237.

(c) Ferric oxide \a estimated in the second half of the filtrate
from (a), by reducing to the ferrous state by means of zinc or
H28 and titrating with permanganate * cf. p. 113.

(d) Calcium is estimated in the filtrate obtained in (b) by
precipitation with ammonium oxalate, p. 147.

PREPARATION OP STANDARD SOLUTIONS i3d

(e) Magnesium in the filtrate from (d), by precipitation with
ammonium phosphate, p. 147.

(f ) SidpKates are determined in a BX)ecial sample by dissolving
1 g. in hot hydrochloric acid, filtering, and precipitating with
barium cMoride. p. 110.

(g) Total vtdphur, — ^Fuse 1 ^. cement with sodium carbonate
and a little x)Otassium nitrate, dissolve in hot water, filter, acidify,
and precipitate with barium chloride.

(n) The estimation of alkalis is rather troublesome, and is
only carried out in exceptional cases; cf. TecK MetK^ i.

(i) The physical tests for fineness of grinding, time of setting^
breaking strain, etc., are described ibid.

B. — Hydraulic Lime and Roman Cement.

The raw material for these are m^arls. In these usuallv only
CO2 and argillaceous residue are estimated, as in the case of lime-
stone, p. 236.

An accurate analysis can be made as described for clay, p. 236,
more especially the separation of the silica present as quartz from
that of the silicates.

G. — Puzzuolanas, Trass, Qranulated Blast-

Fiimaee Slag.

1. Hygroscopic water is estimated by drying 10 g. at 110°.

2. Chemicauy combined water, — lignite 1 g. of the substance
dried in No. 1 in a platinum crucible by means of the blow-pipe,
a Hempel gas-furnace, or other suitable means. The tempera-
ture ought to be raised gradually, so as to attain a red heat in
about ten minutes, in order to avoid mechanical losses by dust
being carried away through a sudden liberation of steam. After
this continue the heating for half an hour to a yellow heat, and
then transfer at once to the desiccator. The loss of weight is an
important criterion for the hydraulicity.

3. Silica present as silicates should be estimated as well as that
of quartz as an important hydraulic factor, as described p. 237.

4. Mechamcal tests for fineness of grinding, etc., as for cement.

XVn. PRBPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS.

Introduction.

The analytical methods given in the foregoing pages are based
u^n the metric system of weights and measures. As there are
still some laboratories in which the English sjrstem is used, the
following remarks on the relation of the metric to the English
system may prove useful.

240 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

The unit of weight of the English system is the grain. All
normal solutions are prepared so tnat 1000 grains by volume (100
decems) contain one equivalent of the reagent in grains, and con-
sequently^ all normal solutions prepared on the English system
are identical in concentration with those prepared on the metric
system.

English burettes usually hold 1000 grains, and are divided into
100 parts of 10 grains each, called one decem. The decern corre-
sponds to the cubic centimetre. As, however, this unit, the
decem, is ten times the unit of weight, the following rules must
be observed when any of the data are to be changed from the
metric to the English system : —

Instead of Litre read 10,000 grains.

,, Cubic centimetre read decem, or 10 times the number

of grains.
„ Grams read 10 times the number of grains.

If, for instance, we are told to prepare a standard solution of
permanganate by dissolving 15*820 ff. of potassium permanganate
m 1 litre of water, and that 1 c.c. of such a solution corresponds
to 0*028 g. of iron, we shall obtain a solution of equal strength by
dissolving 158*20 grains in 10,000 grains of water, and 1 decem of
this solution will correspond to 0*28 grains of metallic iron. No
errors can possibly occur if the reader will always substitute ten
times as many grains for any number of grains, ten times as many
grains, or an equal number of decems for any number of cubic
centimetres, and 10,000 grains for every litre. Where we are
directed to measure out by means of a pipette 50 cc, we ts^e
500 ^ains instead, etc., but when speaking of the number of cubic
centimetres on the burette, we substitute exactly the same number
of decerns.

It will also be useful to remember that :

Grams per litre

»»

»»

«»

»»

Grams per litre -j- 16
Grams per litre x 70

»♦

»»

»»

0*4375 X grams per cub. metre
Kilograms per cubic metre

»»

ft

»»

Kilograms pe r cubic metre

~~ 16

16 X cub. metres per kilogram
Kilograms per square metre
Kilogp*ams per sq. metre x 4*89

grains per 1000 grains.

ounces per 1000 ounces.

ounces per cubic foot (approxi-
mately).

lbs. per cubic foot.

grains per 70,000 grains.

grains per gs^on.

grains per cubic foot.
= lbs. per 1000 lbs.
= lbs. per 16 cubic feet.

= lbs. per cubic foot

cubic feet per lb.

0*205 lb. per square foot.

lbs. per square foot.

PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS 241

A. — ^Normal Acid and Alkali.

As basis of Alkalimetry and Acidimetry, we emplc^
chemically pure sodium carbonate. This is tested for puritv by
dissolving 5 ff . in water, which ought to yield a perfectly clear,
colourless solution; if, after acidifying^ this solution with
nitric add, no opalescence is caused by barium chloride, or silver
nitrate, the salt may be taken as sufficiently pure. Before using
it. the sodium carbonate must be heated in a platinum crucible,
wnich is half -filled with it and is placed on a sand-bath, the sand
reaching to the same level outside as the carbonate inside. A
thermometer is put in^ which at the same time serves as a stirrer.
The temperature is raised to 270° to 300** for about half an hour ;
the contents are then emptied hot into a stoppered weighing-
bottle, which is kept in a desiccator up to the time of weighing.
Then weigh off, for normal acid, four portions of about 2 g. each
into the beakers in which the titration is to take place ; for one-
fifth normal add the single portions ought not to exceed 0*4 g.
The balance ought to turn to at least 0*5 mg.

As normal acid we prefer hydrochloric octc?, which has the
following advantages over sulphuric and oxaHc acid, viz. : — 1st, It
is more generally applicable, e.^., for alkaline earths ; 2nd, its
strength, after being nxed by pure sodium carbonate, can be most
accurately checked by silver nitrate, far more accurately than
that of sulphuric acid by barium chloride ; 3rd, it does not change
on keeping, like oxalic acid.

Normal HCl (36*46 g. HCl per litre) is prej^ared as follows : —
Dilute pure hydrochloric acid to 1*020 specific gravity (4° Tw.).
Sudb an acid will be rather too strong. Fill a burette with this
acid, and titrate with it one of the weighed samples of sodium
carbonate, the weight of which is w ^ams. Suppose that x c.c. of
this acid are required. As the acid is sure to be too strong, x will

always be smaller than -..,,--_ , and we shall have to add to

OooOO

every x c.c. of the acid ^,^^^^^ x c.c. of water, and if the total

OOOoOO

quantity of add of specific gravity 1*020 amounts to V c.c, the
amount of water to be added thereto to render it correct will be

n C.C., where ti = V ( ^ ^ 1 J . For one-fifth normal

acid the above factor would be =

0*01061

If accurate normal alkali is at hand, it may be similarly
employed, for examining the provisional add, and then adjusting
it to tne normal strength.

In any case, the mixed normal acid must be checked by titrat-

ing new samples of sodium carbonate, when x ought to = 7^;^^^av

UDoUO

242 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

A f oriher check is afforded by estimating the chloiine gravimetri-
cally by silver nitrate ; 10 cc (= 0*3646 HCl) ought to yield
1*4338 g. AfsPL

The ordinarjr indiccOor in alkalimetry and addimetry used to
be tincture of htmus, which most be kept in ox)en vessels, to avoid
its being spoiled. Wnen employing litmus, the liquid to be tested
must be kept boiling for some time, in order to expel aU CO2,
and normal add must be added as long as, on further ooiling, the
colour changes back from red to purple, or blue. This prolonged
boiling causes some alkali to be dissolved from most kinds of
glass, whidb makes the tests inaccurate. A test with litmus
rarelv lasts less than half an hour, usualhr more. Phenolphtha-
lein nas exactly the same drawbacks. Even the action of the
carbon dioxide contained in the air, which comes into contact
with the liquid on coolmg, may cause trouble in very accurate
work. On the other hand, a test is finished in a few minutes, if
litmus is replaced by a very dilute solution of methyl cromgt
(dimethylammoazobenzene sulphonic acid), but in this case the
liquids must not be hot, but at the ordinary temperature, and
only mineral acids, not oxalic acid may be employed. The cold
solution of sodium carbonate is coloured just perceptibly yellow
bv adding a drop or two of the solution of methyl orange, prefer-
ably by means of a pipette : if the colour is too intense, it will
cause the transition mto rea on neutralisation to be less sharp.
GO2 does not act in the least upon methyl orange ; a change of
colour only takes place when all Na^COs has been decomposed.
When the NagCOs has been exactly converted into NaCl, the
colour turns from yellow to hrc/umish^ which is due to the action
of free CO2 on the indicator. At this point the reading is made,
preferablv bv means of a Goeckel screen. Just (ym drop of add
IS then added, when tiie colour ought now to beconae distinctly
pimJc, If it remains brownish, another drop of add is added,
and so forth. Exactly the same course is followed in titrating
adds with caustic soda solution; in this case also the reading
is taken at the brownish transition colour, before the change to
jrellow has taken place. ^ The results obtained in this way are
identical with those obtained by the proper application of htmus
or phenolphthalein, tiiat is, working wim these indic^tdrs under
complete exclusion of air, with prolonged boiling, and in porcelain
or Sliver vessels. The great advantage of methyl orange over the
last-named indicators is the saving of time, the workmg at ordi-
narv temperatures, and the possibility of emplcmn^ glass vessels
without any danger of error caused by the use of this material.

Another advantage of methyl orange is that it is not affected
by svlphv/retted hyd/rogen (which destroys litmus) : hence it can
be employed, 6.gr., for the direct titration of black-ash liquors.
Sulphur dioxide acts upon it like the stronger mineral acids, but
only to the extent of one-half of its equivalent ; that is, the point

PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS 243

of neutrality is reached when the compound NaHSOs has been
formed. In the presence of mt/rous add methyl orange is gradu-
ally destroyed, but it is quite ea^ to employ it even m this case
by proceedmg as described on p. 135.

The above description of the transition from yellow through
brownish to pink applies only to more accurate work, e,g.y when
emplcmng fifth normal acid and alkali. With normal or semi-
normal liquids this intermediate colour is hardly observed, the
change passing directly from yellow to pink, and vice versa, ^

It is generally agreed that methyl orange ia the best indicator
for titrating baMsoy means of strong mineral sicids, and this
holds good also for the titration of the strong acids — sulphuric,
hydrodiloric, and nitric acid. In these cases, indeed, its advantage
over litmus or phenolphthalein is even more marked, because a
slight percentage of CO2 in the standard alkali employed has no
effect. But organic acids cannot be titrated with methyl orange.

Some authors have recommended, in lieu of methyl orange,
the unsulphonated compound, dunethylaminoazobenzene, but this
is onlv soluble in alcohol, and cannot be recommended. This is
also the case with ethyl orange.

To prepare standard alhdi^ dissolve about 50 g. of the best
commercial caustic soda in 1 litre of pure water and titrate 60 c.c.
of this solution with standard acid. More than 50 c.c. of acid

will be required ; we call this x c.c. The fraction shows

the number of c.c. of the first solution, which must be diluted
with pure water to 1 litre in order to obtain a really normal alkali.
The solution thus prepared is again checked by titration with
normal acid.

The normal alkali, when intended to be used with litmus,
should be as free as possible from carbonate^ and should be
protected against absorption of CO2 from the air, because other-
wise the change of colour does not take pdace sufficiently rapidly,
and markedly in cold solutions. A solution of sodium hydroxide
entirdy free from carbonate is difficult to prepare and to preserve
when in constant use. When employing methyl orange as an
indicator, an ordinary caustic soaa solution may be employed
without any special precautions. The caustic soda employed
should hot contain more than a very small proportion of alumina ;
ordinary strong caustic nearly always fulfils this condition, or it
may even be replaced by a solution of 53*05 g. pure sodium
carbonate in 1 litre water, which is employed cold, and which
yields as accurate results as NaOH, no notice being taken of the
CO2 which escapes with effervescence. The general use of this
sokttion is, however, inconvenient on account of the efflorescence
on the burettes, necks of bottles, etc. Weaker (^.f/., fifth normal,
or even seminormal) solutions have not this drawback.

All standard solutions must be prepared and employed as

244 THE TECHKiCAL CHfiMlSXS* HANDhOOK

nearly as possible at a certain temperature. Molir prescribes 15*" ;
some prefer 18** C, as being more suitable for laboratories.
When the solutions have stood for some time in .bottles, a little
water is evaporated and recondensed in the upper x>art of the
bottles ; the contents must then be properly mixed by shaking.

If the temperature of the laboratory differs more than 2** or 3"
from that employed for preparing the standard solutions, a correc-
tion should be made by means of the following table. In order
to reduce the Yolumes read off at t° to 16*, deduct per 100 c.c. the
following amounts : —

t". c.c. t'. C.C.

15

23

0-135

16

0-013

24

0-156

17

0-027

26

0-179

18

0-043

26

0-202

19

0-059

27

0-227

20

0-076

28

0-252

21

0-095

29

0-278

22

0-114

80

0-305

B. — Potassium Permanganate.

The ordinary solution is seminonnal^ «.€., it yields 0*004 g.
oxygen per c.c. It serves, e,g,, for estimating nitrous add in
vitriol, for testing the nitrogen acids in the chamber exits, for
testing manganese ore, for testing Weldon mud, etc.

Since iron only occurs in very small Quantity in the products
of alkali manufacture, it is best estimated by means of a tenth or
twentieth normal solution made from the seminormal solution by
dilution, and corresponding to 0*00559 or 0*002795 g. Fe per c.c.
respectively.

The solution is made by dissolving pure crystallised potassium
permanganate, and is then quite stable, if protected from dust
and direct sunlight. With perfectly pure KMnO^, and with
absolutely pure water, it would be necessaify to dissolve 15*815 g.
per litre. Since, however, there is no certainty of the absolute
purity either of the salt or of the distilled water, we dissolve 16
g. of well-crystallised permanganate in 1 litre of distilled water,
and allow to stand for a week before standardising it, so that the
KMn04 may complete its action upon the impurities contained
in the water. Only then is the titre of the solution checked as
below, and eventually brought to exactly seminormal by adding
a little water. Prepared in this manner, and protected agsdnst
dust and direct sunhffht, the solution keeps for any length of time.

None of the methods formerly employed for standardising

Permanganate (by means of metallic iron, or oxalic acid, or
ydrogen peroxide, etc.). is entirely free from objections (cf. l^ech,
Meth,, vol. i.). No sucn objection exists to the employment of
Kahloaum's pure sodium oxalate^ first proposed by Sorensen.

PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOLUTIONS 245

This salt need only be kept for a few hours in a drying oven
at 100**, and then allowed to cool in a desiccator over calcium
chloride. Dissolve about 1*3 g. of this (exactly* weighed) in
about 200 c.c. water, heated to eo*" to 70°, add dilute sulphuric
acid, and run in the permanganate solution from a burette, first
quiody, then drop by drop, until a permanent red colour is pro-
duced. If a be the weight of sodium oxalate, h the c.c. of perman-

ganate solution used, the fraction — ^ — gives the quantity of

oxygen given off per c.c. of the permanganate solution.

If a brown precipitate (of Mn02) should be formed during the
titration, the experiment must be rejected, but tMs occurs only
when the solutions are too concentrated or too hot (i,e,, above 70**).
Permanganate is best employed in a burette with a lateral
hollow glass-tap. Any change in its titre (due to dust, etc.) is
perceptible by a deposition of MnOg in the bottle. It is advisable
to check the solution once every three months.

Permanganate can be used with perfect accuracjr in the
presence of free hydrochloric acid, if the solutions contain a con-
siderable quantity of manganese salts * in other cases the same
effect is produced by adding, say 1 g. oi manganese sulphate free
from iron.

C. — Iodine Solution.

Weigh exactly 12*697 g. of pure resublimed iodine (either
bought as such or prepared by grinding up commercial iodine
wiii 10 per cent, of potassium iodide and resubliraing) on a
balance turning at least with 5 mg. ; put it into a litre flask con-
taining a concentrated solution oi 15 to 18 g. KI, close the flask,
agitate till the iodine is completely dissolved, and fill up to the
mark. This decinormal solution is checked by the arsenite solution
(No. 4). Both solutions ought to be precisely equivalent, c.c. per c.c.

For estimating very small quantities of sodium sulphide
a special iodine solution is sometimes made, by dissolving 3'249 g.
of pure iodine with 5 g. of potassium iodide in a litre, to correspond
to 0*001 5. Na2S per c.c.

Solutions of iodine, especially the more dilute ones, keep a
long time in well-stoppered bottles in a cool place, but they ought
to be checked once a month by the arsenite solution.

Preparation of the starch solution, — Grind uj) 3 g. potato
starch with a little water to a homogeneous paste • intr(5uce this
^RBidually into 300 s. of boiling water, contained, in a porcelain
didi, and continue the boiling till an almost clear liquid has been
produced. Allow this to settle in a tall beaker, pour the clear
portion through a filter, and saturate it with common salt^ This
solution, when kept in a cool place, is stable for some time; as
soon as fungoid growths are noticed in it, it is thrown away.

A very convenient form of soluble starch is that made by

246 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

Zulkowsky's method, by heating 100 parts of oonoentrated
glycerine with 6 parts of starch to 190*" C. for about an hour,
pouring into water and precipitating the soluble starch with
alcohol and filtering. This is kept in the state of a thick paste,
not to be allowed to dry, and a small quantity is taken out for
each test by means of a glass rod. There are also other forms of
soluble starch, 0.^., " OEone-starch.''

D. — Sodium Arsenite Solution.

This serves for standarising^ the iodine solution, and as its
volumetrical complement, esx)ecisiUy in testing bleaching powder.
Employ commercial pure powdered arsenious acid ; test its purity
by subliming a little from a small dish into a watch-glass, when
no yellow sublimate of AsjS^ (which volatilises more easily than
AssOs) should result initially ; on heating more strongly it should
leave no residue. Before use the powdered As^Os is kept for some
time over sulphuric acid in a desiccator, and can then be weired
out without any special precautions, since it is not hygroscopic.
For preparing a dednormal solution^ weigh out exactly 4*950 g.
AsjOs, boil it with 10 g. of pure sodmm bicarbonate and 200 g.
water till completely ofissolved ; add another 10 g. bicarbonate,
and dilute on cooling to 1000 c.c. This solution is quite stable,
and equivalent to 0*003645 g. chlorine or 0*012697 g. iodine per c.c.

If realljr pure and dry arsenious acid has been employed, the
above solution will be correct at once. But when preparing large
quantities, it ou^ht to be checked by grinding up 0*5 g. iodine
with 0*1 g. potassium iodide, heating this mixture m a small dish
on a sand-bath or upon an asbestos board till abundant vapours
arise, covering with a diy watch-glass, allowing the major portion,
but not the whole, of the iodine to sublime into the watch-glass,
covering this with a second watch-glass wMch fits air-tight upon
the former, and has been weighed with it, and wei^dnj^. Slip
the watch-glasses into a solution of 1 g. of potassium iodide (free
from iodate), in 10 g. water, wait a uttle till the iodine is dis-
solved, dilute with 100 cc, water, and titrate with tihe arsenite
solution. When the colour is only a light yellow, add a little
starch solution, and titrate exactly till the blue colour has just
vanished. The c.c. of arsenite solution used, multiplied by
0*012697, ought to correspond exactljr with the weight of iodine
taken. Or tne dry, sublimed iodine is transferred directly from
the upper watch-glass into a tared stoppered weiglung - bottle,
weighed, and dissolved in KT solution in tne same bottle,

B.— Silver Solution.

Weigh out exactly 16*994 g. of pure crvstallised silver nitrate,

Preferably kept in a desiccator for a few hours, and dissolve in 1
tre. This gives a decinormal solution, corresponding per c.c. to

RULES FOR SAMPLING 247

0-003646 g. CI, or 0-003646 g. HCl, or 0*00586 g. NaCl By dis-
solving 2*905 g. AgNOs in 1 litre, a solution is obtained corre-
sponding to 0*001 g. NaCl i>er c.c.

Awmxymacdl mver soLvtUm. for Lestelle's estimation of alkaline
sulpiliides, is obtained by dissoiving 13*810 g. of pure silver in pure
nitric acid, adding 250 c.c. liquor animonise, and diluting to 1 litre.
Each c.c. of this corresponds to 0*005 g. Na2S.

F. — Copi>er Solution.

Copper solution, for testing f erropyanide, is obtained by dis-
solving 12*488 g. pure crystallised, not effloresced, cupric sulphate,
in 1 litre water. {Cf. p. 168.)

G. — Oxalic Aoid Solution.

Oxalic add solution is employed for testing the *^base'' of
Weldon mud, and caustic soda or hme in the presence of carbonate
(pp. 155 and 156). Dissolve 63*03 g. pure, not effloresced, ciystal-
lised oxalic acid in 1 litre water, and check with normal sdkali.
This solution is not quite stable, especially when exx)osed to day-
light ; nor can it be employed for alkalimetry, when using methyl
orange as an indicator.

XVnL RULBS FOR SAMPLING.

A.— Fuel.*

Take a shovelful of each wheelbarrow, basket, etc., throw it
into a cask or tub closed by a lid, coarsely grind up the whole
without delay, mix iJie contents, spread them out in a flat, square
heap, divide this diagonally into four quadrants, remove two
opposite quadrants, ^rmd up the other two more nnely and mix
them again and contmue in this manner until the weight has been
reduced to about ^ cwt. Put this into a tin box which is soldered
up and sent to tiie testing-laboratory. There this sample is ^ound
again, mixed up, and divided into twelve or sixteen portions in
the manner of a chess-board. Take out a teaspoonful from each of
these portions and grind them in a porcelain mortar to a powder
as fine as dust. Tms powder is kept in a stoppered bottle, and is
well mixed up before taking out a fresh sample for testing.

For separate moisture tests, a number of samples are taken
during the first sampling, and kept in air-tight vessels.

B. — Ores and Minerals (Pyrites^ Manganese,

Salt, etc.).

(a) Smalls, slack, salt, or other svbsta/nces not reqfuircfM to he
crusJied. — ^Take a sample of about 1 lb. of each weighmg-tub, cart,

* Acoordtng to the rules laid down for the German Official tests of steam-boilers
and steam-engines.

248 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

or the like, by means of a scoop, so as to obtain about the same
(quantity each time. Of railway trucks, which are tipped directly
into the warehouse, take three sfonples, one from the middle and
one from each end. All these single samples are' put in a cask
and kept covered^ to prevent the evaporation of moisture. When
the large sample is taken, empty the contents of the cask on a
level, clean, and hard place, spreistd it flat, heap it up in a cone
at the centre by going regularly round with a spade ; spread this
heap a^n flat, and take a sample of about a quarter of the mass,
by taking out with a spade two strips crossing each other at right
angles, and adding a little from the centre of each remaining
quadrant. Treat tnis reduced sample ezactl^r like the larger one,
so that a third sample of about 5 lbs. is obtamed. Mix this again
thoroughly, and fill it into four (or more) wide-necked bottles of
4 ounces capadtv, placed close together on a sheet of paper, so
that a portion of each handful gets into each of the four bottles.
When these are full, they are at once closed with ti^ht-fitting
coiks ; these are cut off straight above the necks of the bottles
and well covered with sealing wax, putting on the seals of both
buyer and seller, or any other party concerned. The mixing and
filling must be done as quickly as possible, in order to prevent the
evaporation, or the absolution of appreciable quantities of moisture
during the operation.

The above sample bottles are handed over to the laboratory
chemist, who has to pulverise their contents till they pass com-
pletely through a sieve with holes 1 mm. (=^. in.) wide; no
coarse material must be left behind. From this, after thorough
mixing, a smaller sample is taken and reduced to the degree of
division necessary for analysis, by grinding in a steel or agate
mortar, in the case of softer substances in a porcelain mortar.
Manganese samples should not be treated m iron mortars.
Moisture is estimated in an unground portion of the sample.

(b) Ores in jrieces requiring to he crushed, — ^Large-sized samples
must be taken if the lumps of the ore are very coarse. If the
pieces are not above the size of an apple, and not too unequal,
it is sufficient to take a sample from each tub, etc^ as in (a), but
with a shovel or scoop holding about 10 lbs. In the case of
larger lumps, and of very unequal sizes, it is preferable to tip
each tenth or twentieth tub or cart into a separate place, where
the whole average sample is coUected. In any case, tne pro-
portion between the large and small must be represented as
accurately as possible in the average sample. Tjiis is then
crushed to the size of a walnut, either by hand or by machinery,
leaving no larger lumps behind. The crushed material is
thoroughly mixed by turning it over wi^ a spade several times ;

* At some factories very unsatis&ctory results have been obtained with this mode
of sampling; they prefer that described later on (in ft), of taking a certain number of
entire tubs, barrows, or carts as sample.

RULES FOR SAMPLING 249

it is then siuread out in a flat heap and a smaller sample of about
i cwt. is taken, by lifting out two strips crossing each other at
right angles, adding something from the centre of each remaining
quadrant. The reduced sample is crushed further, either in a
large metal mortar, or preferably with a sledge-hammer on a
flanged cast-iron plate about 3 ft. square, bedded on a solid
foundation; the latter process is much more convenient and
cleanly than grinding in a mortar. The coarse portions are sifted
out by a riddle of ^-in. holes and crushed again, till all has
passed throu^. The product is reduced as in (a), by mixing,
etc., to a quantity of 2 or 4 lbs., from which the sample bottles
are filled as described above.

C. — Chemicals.

ScUtcakey soda-ash, etc., if in bulk, are sampled as in No. 1, (a).
If packed in casks^ each third, fifth, or tenth cask, according to the
size of the parcel, is bored at one of its bottoms and sampled by
means of an atiger (Fig. 19), which is inserted up to the centre of

Pio. 19.

the cask, turning it round its axis all the while. The single cask
samples are put into a large wide-mouthed bottle, as drawn, till
the sampling is over. Then empty the whole on to a large sneet
of paper, mix thoroughly, cfush any lumps with a spatula, and fill
the 4-ounce bottles, previously preparea, exactly as described in
No. 1 as for ores, observing the same rules for corking and seaJiiig.
Bleachvng powder, potash, and any other substances whi(ui
are liable to be quickly spoilt in contact with the air by attract-
ing moisture, or from other reasons, are treated like the foregoing
substances, but operating with the greatest possible speed, and
keeping the large bottle for collecting the cask samples well dosed.
The sampling is still more safely performed by taking away the
upper end of the cask, removing the top layer to a depth of about
2 inches, taking a handful of the material from the interior as
far as it is possible to reach in, which should be nearly at the
centre of the cask, and placing it in the large bottles. In iJiis
way there is the least contact with air. Or else a sample-auger is
employed, like that shown in Fig. 20, p. 260. It is made of a piece
of gas-pipe of li-inch bore, cut open for part of its length, so that
a longitudinal slot of 1 incn width, a, is formed. One side of tibis
slot is sharpened, as well as the tip 6, which is driven into the
bleadhing powder, etc. The upper part of the pipe is left uncut,
and is provided with a handle, c. jBefore introducing the auger
the cask is well shaken up ; then it is placed in an upright

260 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

position and the auger is driven in as deeply as x)ossible, in case
of need by iJie aid of a hammer. This is done either after opening
the cask, or by honaff a hole in the end which is afterwards
closed by a i>iece of tm, with paper ondemeath. After driving
in the auger, it is turned several times round its axis so that it
cuts through the bleaching powder with its sharp side and is thus
filled up with it. The sample drawn out is put on paper, and
is crushed on this as <]|uickly as possible, preferably bv means of
a small hand-roller, it is then mixed and spread out flat. Small
samples are finally taken from various parts by means of a
spatola, as quickly as possible, and are put into bottles which
are tightly closed and kept in a dark place. Bleaching powder
samples snould be always tested with as little delay as possible.

Fio. 20.

Caustic soda, — Since the samples attract moisture and carbonic
acid on their surface, even in well-closed bottles, the outer opaque
crust must be removed by scraping before weighing out the samples
(d', p. 191). It should be borne in mind that the centre of
tne drum is of weaker strength than the remainder, because the
foreign salts accumulate in the portion which remains liquid the
longest. The average strength is bestrrepresented by the portions
next to the bottom and sides of the drum, which solidify quickest.
This is most conveniently done while the contents are still in the
liquid state. For the control of the manufacture itself it is best
to take samples out of everv pot during the time its contents are
ladled out, from the top, tne centre, and the bottom. These are
poured out on to a metal plate, where they quickly solidify. The
centre sample i3 the most important one forjudging of the quality
of each pot.

Sdia sulphuric cmhydride cannot be sampled directly for
analysis. An au^er cannot be employed, as the mass is too firm
and tough ; meltmg the mass in the drums themselves is out of
the question, on account of the clouds of fumes. The f oDowing
process is, therefore, employed : — A large sample of the solid
anhydride is mixed witn so much exactly analysed "mono-
hydrated " sulphuric add that an acid of aoout 70 per cent, is
formed, which is liquid at ordinary temperatures. This mixture
is made in a stoppered bottle, and is gently heated to 30° or 40° C,
the stopper being loosely put in, till the solution is complete,
and a small sample then taken out by means of Lunge and Key's
glass-tap pipette (p. 144),

COMPARISON OF HYDROMETER DEGREES 261

00MFARI80N OF TUB

AOOORDINe TO

BAUl

CB AND TWADDBLL, WITH TUB

SPBOIFIO GRAVITIBa

•

■a

T

Spec.

B

T

Spec.

t

■n

T

Speo.

Dm

± •

Gravity. ,

D.

15-4

24

Grmvity.

x>.

X •

Gmvity.

1-000

1-120

29-3

51

1-255

0-7

1

1-005

16-0

25

1-125

29-7

52

1-260

1-0

1'4

1-007

16-5

26

I'lSO

30-0

52-6

1*268

1*4

2

1-010 !

17-0

26-8

1-134

80-2

53

1-265

2*0

2-8

1^014

17-1

27

1^35

30-6

54

1-270

2-1

3

1-015

17-7

28

1-140

31-0

54-8

1-274

2-7

4

1-020

18-0

28-4

1^42

31-1

55

1-275

3-0

4-4

1-022

18-3

29

1-145

31-5

56

1-280

3-4

5

1-025

18-8

30

1-150

32-0

57

1*285

4-0

6-8

1-029

19-0

30-4

1-152

32*4

58

1-290

4'1

6

1-030

19-3

31

1-155

32-8

59

1-295

4-7

7

1-035

19-8

32

1-160

33-0

59*4

1-297

5-0

7-4

1-037

20-0

32-4

1-162

33-3

60

1-300

5 '4

8

1-040

20-3

38

1-165

33 '7

61

1-305

6-0

9

1-045

20-9

34

1-170

34-0

61-6

1-308

6-7

10

1-050

21-0

34-2

1-171

84-2

62

1-310

7-0

10 '2

1-052

21-4

35

1-175

34-6

63

1-315

7-4

11

1-055

22-0

36

1-180

35-0

64

1-320

8-0

12

1-060

22-5

37

.1-185

35*4

65

1-325

8-7

18

1-065 '

23-0

38

1-190

35-8

66

1-330

9-0

13-4

1-067

23-5

39

1-195

86-0

66*4

1-332

9-4

14

1-070

24-0

40

1'200

36-2

67

1-385

10-0

15

1-075

24-5

41

1-205

36-6

68

1-340

10-6

16

1-080

25-0

42

1-210

37-0

69

1-345

11-0

16-6

1-083

25-5

43

1-215

37-4

70

1-350

11-2

17

1-085

26-0

44

1-220

37-8

71

1-355

11-9

18

1-090

26-4

45

1-225

88-0

71-4

1-357

12-0

18-2

1-091 ;

26-9

46

1-230

38-2

72

1-360

12-4

19

1-095

27-0

46-2

1-231

38-6

73

1-365 ,

13-0

20

1-100

27-4

47

1-235

39-0

74

1-370

13-6

21

1-105 !

27-9

48

1-240

39*4

75

1-376

14-0

21-6

1-108 1

28-0

48-2

1-241

39-8

76

1-380

14-2

22

1-110

28-4

49

1-245

40-0

76-6

1-383

14-9

23

1-115

28-8

50

1-250

40-1

77

1-385

15-0

23-2

1-116

29-0

50-4

1-252

40-5

78

1-390

N,B,-

-TbeBau

im^ degrees

arecalci

ilAted by

the formula

d- ^^

i'..-»b

eroflS'C.

144-8 -n'

being pntsO* and snlphiiric acid of 1*842 at 16* G.=66°; compare Lvmge's Svlphuric
Ada and AlJudi, yol. i., p. 20. This is the Baume's hydrometer, mostly used on the
Ckmtinent of Boxope, bat other scales are in use there as well, and quite another
scale for Baumd's hydrometer is used in America.

252 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS' HANDBOOK

00MPABX8ON OF THM HYBBOMBTBR DBORB]
Iir0 TO BAUMA AHD TWADDHUi,
SPBOIFIC QKAVmaB^Cantimu^,

■8 AOOOBD-
WITH THB

B.

42
42
48
48
48

40-8
41-0
41-2
41-6
42-0

3

7

1
4

48-8
44-0
44-1
44-4
44-8

45-0
45-1
45-4
45-8
46-0

46-1
46-4
46-8
47-0
47-1

47-4
47-8
48-0
48-1
48-4

48-7
49-0
49*4
49-7
60-0

50-3
50-6

T.

Spec.

Gravity.

79

1-895

79-4

1-397

80

1-400

81

1-405

82

1-410

83

1-415

84

1-420

84-8

1-424

85

1-425

86

1-430

87

1-435

87-6

1-438

88

1-440

89

1-445

90

1-450

90-6

1-458

91

1-455

92

1-460

93

1'465

93-6

1-468

94

1-470

95

1-475

96

1-480

96*6

1-483

97

1-485

98

1-490

99

1-495

99-6

1-498

100

1-500

101

1-505

102
103
104
105
106

107
108

1-510
1-515
1-520
1-525
1-580

1-535
1-540

B.

50-9
51*0
51-2
51-5
61-8

52-0
52-1
52-4

52-7
53-0

53-3
53-6
53-9
54-0
54-1

54*4
54-7
55-0
55-2
55-5

55-8
66-0
56-3
56-6
66-9

57-0
57-1
67-4
57-7
57-9

58-0
58-2
58-4
58-7
58*9

59-0
59-2

T.

109

109-2

110

111

112

112-6

113

114

115

116

.117

118

119

119-4

120

121
122
123
124
125

126

127
128
129
130

130-4

131

132

133

134

134-2

185

136

137

138

138-2
139

1-545
1-546
1-550
1-555
1-560

1-563
1-565
1-570
1-575
1-580

1-585
1-590
1-595
1-597
1-600

1
1
1
1
1

606
610
615
620
625

630
635
640
1-645
1-650

1
1
1
1
1

652
655
660
665
670

1-671
1-675
1-680
1-685
1-690

1-691
1-695

B.

T.

59-5

140

59-7

141

60-0

142

60-2

143

60-4

144

60-6

145

60-9

146

61-0

146-4

61-1

147

61-4

148

61-6

149

61-8

150

62-0

150-6

62-1

151

62-3

152

62-5

153

62-8

154

63-0

156

63-2

156

63-5

157

63-7

158

64-0

159

64-2

160

64-4

161

64-6

162

64-8

163

65-0

164

65-2

166

65-5

166

65-7

167

65-9

168

66-0

168-4

66-1

169

66-3

170

66-6

171

66-7

172

67-0

178

Spec
Gravity.

1-700
1-705
1-710
1*715
1-720

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

1
1
1
1
1

1
1

'725
-780
-732
•736
•740

•745
'750
'753
•755
'760

•765
•770
•775
•780
'786

1-790
1-796
1-800
1-805
1-810

1-815
1-820
1-826
1-830
1-885

-840
•842
•845
•850
-855

-860
•866

VALUE OF ALKALI I'Ek TON

253

w ^^m ^^^K

wmim »

Price
per unit.

1 per cent.

2 per cent.

8 per cent.

4 per cent.

6 per cent.

Pence.

£

8. d.

£

», d.

£ «.

d.

£ 8.

d.

£ 8. d.

i

1 3

2 6

3

9

5

6 3

H

1 -41

2 8i

4

Of

5

5

6 9i

i

1 5i

2 11

4

H

5

10

7 84

a '

1 6f

3 li

4

8i

6

3

7 9|

1

1 8

3 4

6

6

8

8 4

ItV

1 9i

3 6i

5

31

7

1

8 101

U

1 lOi

3 9

5

n

7

6

9 44

lA

1 Hi

3 Hi

5

iij

7 11

9 lOi

U

2 1

J 2

6

3

8

4

10 5

ItV

2 2i

4 4i

6

6i

8

9

10 m

If

2 8i

4 7

6

104

9

2

11 54

1/,T

2 4|

4 94

7

2i

9

7

11 111

li

2 6

5

7

6

10

12 6

lA

2 7i

5 2i

7

n

10

5

13 Oi

li

2 8^

6 5

8

ij

10

10

13 6i

IH

2 9|

5 7i

8

H

11

3

14 0|

li

2 11

5 10

8

9

11

8

14 7

IH

3 Oi

6 Oi

9

08

12

1

15 li

14

3 IJ

6 3

9

44

12

6

15 74

m

8 2i

6 64

9

H

12

11

16 li

2

3 4

6 8

10

13

4

16 8

2tV

3 5i

6 104

10

3f

13

9

17 2i

2i

3 6J.

7 1

10

74

14

2

17 84

2A

.

1

3 7|

7 34

10

Hi

14

7

18 2f

2i

3 9

7 6

11

3

15

18 9

2A

3 lOi

7 8i

11

n

15

5

19 3i

21

3 Hi

7 11"

11

104

15

10

19 94

2 A

4 Of

8 14

12

n

16

3

1 3|

2^

4 2

^

8 4

12

6

16

8

1 10

1

1

. -.

To find the value of IntttrmediAte Htrengtlis not given in the table, for instance-

86 per cent, at 1-^ per unit, find for 80 per cent £8 5 7^

then for 6 „ 18 1^

The sum gives value per ton of 86 „ £8 IS 9

254 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

VALUB OF AIiKAIil PBR TOV—CofUmusd.

Price
per anit.

Pence.

I

111

i

1

H
li

ij

If

lU

i|

IS
HI

2

2iV

2i

2 s
Tff

2i

2^

21

2A

2^

6 per cent.

£

1
1
1
1
1

s. d,

7 6

8 14

8 9

9 ^

10

10 74

11 3

11 104

12 6

18 14

13 9

14 44

15

15 74

16 3

16 104

17 6

18 14

18 9

19 44

10

1 74

1 1 3
1 1 104

2
3
3

4
5

6

14
9

44

7 per cent.

£ s. d,
8 9
9 5f

10 24

10 111

11 8
12 4|
18 14
18 lOJ

1
1
1
1
1

14
15
16
16

7

H
04

H

17 6
18 2|
18 114

19 8i

10 5

1 1 If
1 1 104
1 2 7J

18 4

1 4 Of

1 4 94

1 5 6i

6 3

6 llf

7 84

8 5i

9 2

8 per cent.

£ 8. d.
10
10 10
11 8
12 6

13 4
14 2
15
15 10

16 8

17 6

18 4

19 2

10

1 10
118

12 6

13 4

14 2

15
1 5 10

1 6 8

17 6

18 4

19 2

1 10

1 10 10

1 11 8

1 12 6

1 13 4

9 per cent.

£

8.
11

12
13
14

d.
3

21

14
Of

15

16 Hi

16 104

17 9i

18 9

19 Si

1 74

1 1 6|

12 6

1 8 5i

1 4 44

1 5 3|

16 3

1 7 2J

1 8 14

1 9 Of

1 10

1 10 Hi

1 11 104

1 12 9|

1 13
1 14
1 15
1 16
1 17

9

H

74
6J

6

10 per cent

£

8.

12
18

14
15

d.
6

64
7

71

16 8

17 8i

18 9

19 9i

1 10
1 1 104
1 2 11
1 8 11^

15

1 6 04

1 7 1

1 8 IJ

19 2

1 10 2^

1 11 3

1 12 3^

1 13
1 14
1 15
1 16

4

4i
5

H

1 17 6

1 18 6^

1 19 7

2 7^
2 1 8

To find the value of intermediate strengths not given in the table, for instance—

86 per cent, at 1^ per unit, find for 80 per cent £8 5 7i

then for 6 „ 18 ij

The sum gives value per ton of 86 „ £8 18 9

J

VALUE OF ALKALI PER TON

255

VALUE OF AIiKAU PBR TOK^ConHnuecU

Price
per unit.

20 per cent.

80 per cent.

40 per cent.

48 per cent.

60 per cent.

Pence.

£ s.

d.

£ «. d.

£ «.

d.

£ «.

d.

£ s. d.

1

1 5

1 17 6

2 10

3

3 2 6

«

1 7

1

2 74

2 14

2

3 5

8 7 84

i

1 9

2

2 3 9

2 18

4

3 10

3 12 11

u

1 11

3

2 6 104

8 2

6

3 15

3 18 14

1

1 13

4

2 10

3 6

8

4

4 8 4

1^

1 15

5

2 18 14

3 10 10

4 5

4 8 64

14

1 17

6

2 16 3

3 15

4 10

4 13 9

It'V

1 19

7

2 19 44

3 19

2

4 15

4 18 114

IJ

2 1

8

3 2 6

4 3

4

5

5 4 2

1^^

2 3

9

3 5 74

4 7

6

5 5

5 9 44

If

2 5

10

3 8 9

4 11

8

5 10

5 14 7

lA

2 7 11

3 11 104

4 15 10

5 15

5 19 94

H

2 10

3 15

5

6

6 5

lA

2 12

1

3 18 14

5 4

2

6 5

6 10 24

If

2 14

2

4 18

5 8

4

6 10

6 15 5

IH

2 16

3

4 4 44

5 12

6

6 15

7 74

If

2 18

4

4 7 6

5 16

8

7

7 5 10

m

3

5

4 10 74

6

10

7 5

7 11 04

n

3 2

6

4 13 9

6 5

7 10

7 16 3

IH

3 4

7

4 16 104

6 9

2

7 15

8 1 54

2

3 6

8

5

6 18

4

8

8 6 8

2^

3 8

9

6 3 14

6 17

6

8 5

8 11 104

2i

3 10

10

5 6 3

7 1

8

8 10

8 17 1

2A

3 12

11

5 9 44

7 5

10

8 15

9 2 34

2J

3 15

5 12 6

7 10

9

9 7 6

2i^tr

3 17

1

5 15 74

7 14

2

9 5

9 12 84

28

3 19

2

5 18 9

7 18

4

9 10

9 17 11

2i7,r

4 1

3

6 1 104

8 2

6

9 15

10 3 14

2i

4 3

4

6 5

8 6

8

10

10 8 4

To find the value of intermediate strengths not given in the table, for instance —

36 per cent, at l-^ per unitt find for 80 per cent £8 5 7^

then for 6 „ 18 ij

The-suragives valueperton of 86 ,, £8 18 9

266 THE TECHNICAL CHEMISTS* HANDBOOK

VAIiUB OF AT.TAT.T pBB TON— CoNtMNMd.

Price
p«r unit.

63 per cent.

64 per cent.

66 per cent.

67 per cent.

68 per cent.

Pence.

£ «. (?.

£ 8. d.

£ 8.

d.

£ $.

d.

£ s. d.

f

3 6

3 7 6

3 10

3 11

3

3 12 6

it

3 10 5

3 13 li

8 15

10

3 17

2i

3 18 64

i

3 15 10

3 18 9

4 1

8

4 3

14

4 4 7

H

4 18

4 4 4i

4 7

6

4 9

Of

4 10 74

1

4 6 8

4 10

4 18

4

4 15

4 16 8

Wc

4 12 1

4 15 74

4 19

2

6

Hi

5 2 84

li

4 17 6

5 13

5 5

5 6

104

5 8 9

lA

6 2 11

5 6 104

5 10 10

5 12

n

5 14 94

li

5 8 4

5 12 6

5 16

8

5 18

9

6 10

lA

5 13 9

6 18 14

6 2

6

6 4

H

6 6 lOi

If

5 19 2

6 3 9

6 8

4

6 10

74

6 12 if

lA

6 4 7

6 9 44

6 14

2

6 16

6|

6 18 11^

n

6 10

6 15

7

7 2

6

7 5

lA

6 15 5

7 74

7 5

10

7 8

5J

7 11 0|

16

7 10

7 6 3

7 11

8

7 14

44

7 17 1

IH

7 6 3

7 11 104

7 17

6

8

31

8 3 H

IS

7 11 8

7 17 6

8 3

4

8 6

3

8 9 2

ug

7 17 1

8 3 14

8 9

2

8 12

2i

8 15 24

IS

8 2 6

8 8 9

8 15

8 18

14

9 1 3

m

8 7 11

8 14 44

9

10

9 4

Of

9 7 84

2

8 13 4

9

9 6

8

9 10

9 13 4

2A

8 18 9

9 5 74

9 12

6

9 15

Hi

9 19 44

24

9 4 2

9 11 3

9 18

4

10 1

104

10 5 5

2A

9 9 7

9 16 104

10 4

2

10 7

9i

10 11 54

2i

9 15

10 2 6

10 10

10 13

9

10 17 6

2A

10 6

10 8 14

10 15

10

10 19

H

11 3 6i

2i

10 5 10

10 13 9

11 1

8

11 5

74

11 9 7

2A

10 11 3

10 19 44

11 7

6

11 11

6|

11 15 74

24

10 16 8

11 6

11 13

4

11 17

6

12 1 8

To tind

the value of ii

itermediate str

engths not giv

an in the table

1, for iustauce-

86 per cen

t. at 1^ per u

nit, find for 30

per cent.

...£8 6

n

then for 6

tt

• ■ • • 1

.. 18

_u

The sum gives value per ton of 86

,£8 18 9

INDEX

ACKTYLKNS, 226

Acid, free, in fertilisers, 280

in sulphate of alumina, 286

standard preparation of, 241
Acids in chambers, 118
Air compression, 61

currents, speed of, 101
tables of, 102
Alkali available in black-ash, 105
in tank waste, 167
in soda ash, 176

total, in tank waste, 167

firee, in bleach liquors, 192

standard preparation of, 248

value per ton, 258
Alkalimetrical degrees, 177

table of, 178
Alumina, commercial, 285

preparations, 282

sulphate of, 288
in fertilisers, 280
Aluminate of soda, 285
Ammonia manufacture, 215

volatile, 215, 217
total, 215

solutions, specific gravities of, 219

carbonate, specific gravities of solu-
tions, 220

sulphate of, 217
Ammoniacal brine, 188
Ammonia-soda process, 188
Anemometer, Fletcher's, 101

tables for, 102

Beger's, 104
Aqueous vapour, tension at various tem-
peratures, 54, 55
Area of circles, etc., table of, 65
Arsenic, estimation in brimstone, 108

267

Arsenic, estimation in pyrites, 112

in sulphuric acid, 148

In hydrochloric acidJL52^
Arsenite of soda(l3tSndard solation, 246
Ash of fuel, 95

of mixing coal, 16^
Atomic weights, 8
Auger for sampling, 249
Available soda. See Alkali

Bass of Wxldon mud, 155

Baum^'s hydrometer, 251

Bauxite, 282

Beet ashes, 205

Belgian method for estimating zinc in

blende, 114
Black-ash, 164
Bleach liquors, 162
Bleaching powder, 167

table of percentages, 158

sampling, 249
Bleaching powder chambers, tests before

opening them, 159
Blende, 114

cinders from, 116
Boiling i)oints of various substances, 86

of water at various pressures, 59
Bottoms, caustic, 190
Brimstone, analysis, 108
Bunte burette, 221
Burner gases, 116
Burnt pyrites, 118

Calcium gabbidk, 226
Calorific power of fuel, 97
Carbon, fixed, in ftiel,
dioxide. See Carbonates
in Deacon gases, 160

R

258

INDEX

Carbon dioxide In electiolytio chlorine,
161
in carbonated soda liquor, 169
by Lunge and Rlttener's method, 169
in ooal-gas, 822
monoxide, 222
Carbonated soda liquor, 169
Carbonates in pyrites, 112
in manganese ore, 168
in quicklime, 166
in bleaching powder or bleach liquors,

168
in caustic soda, 191
Camallite, 208
Caustic bottoms, 190
liquor, 184

specific gravities, 186
soda, manufkcture, 187
commercial, 191
sampling, 250
in black-ash, 166
Cement, Portland, 236
Cements, other, 239

Centigrade degrees, comparison with Fah,

renheit, 29, 80
Chamber gases, 117
Chance process, 180
Chancel's sulphurimeter, 109
Chemicals, sampling of, 249
Chimney gases, 97

from chemical works (Act of Parlia-
ment), 147
China clay, 282
Chlorate of potash, 162
Chlorates, estimation, 162
by Fresenius's method, 192
by Ditz and Knopfelmacher, 192
Chloride, estimation in common salt, 145
in saltcake, 146
of potassium, 162
Chlorine, estimation in salt, 146
Chlorine, free, in hydrochloric acid, 162
in the atmosphere of chambers before
opening them, 159
available in bleaching powder, 157

comparison with French degrees, 168
in Deacon gases, 160
electrolytic, 161

liquid, pressure and specific gravities,
168
Cinders from pyrites, 118

from blende, 116
Circumferences, table of, 65
Claus kilns, gases of, 1S2

Clay, percentage in cement, 286

complete analysis, 286
Coal, 96

mixing, for Leblanc process, 162

gas, 220
Coinage of different countries, 90
Coke, 95
Compounds, symbols, molecular weights,

percentage composition, 4
Compression of air, 61
Copper, estimation In pyrites. 111
in burnt pyrites, 118

solutions, standard, 247
Cubic centimetres in gas-volometric

analyses, calculation to milligrams of

the substance required, 17
Cyanogen in spent oxide, 226

Dkacon process, 160
Decomposing flask, 217
Degrees, alkalimetrical, table, 177
Density of gases and vapours, 16
Draught, testing speed of, 101

Elkgtrical units, 64
Electro-chemical equivalents, 64
Electrolytic chlorine, 161

alkali liquors, 191
English weights and measures, reduction

to metrical, 85
Bschka's method for estimating sulphar,

96
Expansion, linear, of substances, 28
Explosive mixtures of gases and air, 62

Factors tor qrayiuvtbic analtsks, 12
Factors for reducing volumes of gas« to

normal temperature and pressure, 50
Fahrenheit degrees, comparison with

Centigrade, 29, 80
Feed- water for steam-boilers, 106
Ferchland's estimation of carbon dioxide,

161

Ferric oxide in fertilisers, 230
Perrocyanide in tank liquor, 168
Fertilisers, 227

sampling, 227

moisture, 227

estimation of phosphoric acid, 228

free acids, 280

Ferric oxide and alumina, 280

nitrogen, 231
Fire gases, 97
Fished salts in caustic soda manufecture,

190

INDEX

259

Fletcher's anemometer, 101
Freezing mixtures, 84

points, 82
Fuel, 96

calorific power of, 97

sampling, 247
Furnaces, 97

Gas-bubettss, 220
Gases, density of, 16
solubility in water, 20
reduction of volume to 0° C, 88
to a pressure of 760 mm. , 44
to 0° C. or 82° F., 50
factors for the same, 50
Gases, liquefied properties, 68
See Fire gases. Burner gases, Chimney

gas, Chamber gases, etc.
in sulphur recovery (Glaus kilns), 182
Gas-liquor, 215
Gas-producers (generators), 99
Gas- volumeter. Lunge's, 189

with decomposing flask, 217
Gas-volumetric analysis, calculation, 17
Gay-Lussac's degrees of bleaching powder,

158
Glass-tap pipette, 144
Gravimetric analysis, factors for, 12
Gravity, specific, of gases, 16
of solids, 24
of liquids, 27
of saturated solutions, 27

Habdnbss op Water, temporary, 106

total, 107

reagents for removing, 107
Hargreaves process, 149
Heats, specific, 59
Heatuig efibcts, 60
High temperatures, 87
Hydraulic lime, 289
Hydrochloric acid in chimney gases, 148

specific gravities, 150

influence of temperature on, 151

analysis, 151

estimation of HCl, 151

of impurities, 152

estimation of acid required for decom-
posing manganese ore, 154

standard, 241
Hydrogen in coal-gas, 228

sulphide, 182
Hydrometer degrees, comparison of, 251
Hypochlorites, 157

Hypochlorous acid, free, 191

IlTDICATORS, 242

International atomic weights, 8
Iodine in nitrate of soda, 194

in nitric add, 201

solution, standard, 245
Iron in burnt pyrites, 118

in sulphuric acid, 142

in sulphate of soda, 147

in hydrochloric acid, 152

in sulphate of alumina, 234

Ejeldahl • Jodlbaubb's method
estimating nitrogen, 281

FOR

Lead, in pyrites, 112

in blende, 115

in sulphuric acid, 142

chambers. See Chambers
Leblanc process, 164

raw materials, 164

black-ash, 164

tank waste, 167
liquor, 168

carbonated liquor, 169

mother liquor, 171

sulphur recovery, 180
Le Chatelier's pyrometer, 105
Lime, estimation in blende, 115
i^^Aftlt, 146
in saltcake, 146
in limestone, 155

caustic, 156

quick, 156

slaked, 156

milk of, 157

specific gravities of milk of, 157

in black-ash, 163

hydraulic, 289
Lime-kiln gases, 181
Lime mud in caustic soda manufacture,

190
Limestone, 155, 236
Linear expansion of substances, 28
Liquefied gases, properties, 68
Liquor ammonise, 218
Litmus, 242

Litre weights of gases, 16
Lunge's formula for testing the work of

furnaces, 99
Lunge-Orsat apparatus, 100
Lunge's nitrometer, 136

gas-volumeter, 189, 217

260

INDEX

Lunge's iMgent for nltroiu add, 148

glM8-Up pipette, 144
Lunge and Blttener'a method for eetimmt-
ing carbon dioxide, 160
and K^ler'8 method for eitimating

email quantities of iron, 284
and Mlllberg'8 separation of quartz
1h>m silicates, 887

MAOVmUM SALTS IN POTASSIUM CHLOB-

IDI, 804
Manganese ore, natural, 168
sampling, 347

dioxide, estimation, 158, 164

mud, recovered, 164
Manures. See Fertilisers
Mathematical tables, 86
Measures and weights of diflbrent coun>

tries, 81
Melting points, 88

Mensuration of areas and solid contents, 79
Metals, sheets, weight of, 89
Methane in coal-gas, 824
Methyl orange, 842
Metrical weights and measures, reduction

to English, 85
Minerals, sampling of, 247
Mixing coal, 164

Molecular weights of compounds, 4
Molybdenum method fqr phosphates, 229
Mother liquor of Leblanc soda, 171
Muriatic acid. See Hydrochloric acid

NiTBATI or SODA, 198

Nitre^iake, 195

Nitric acid, manufacture of, 198
specific gravities, 196

influence of temperature, 199
titration, 301
impurities, 201

mixtures with sulphuric acid, 202
oxide, 120
Nitrogen acids, estimation in chamber
gases, 118
in sulphuric acid, 186
relative proportions of, 141
qualitative test for, 141
in fertilisers, 281
nitric-, 281
total, 281
organic, 282
Nitrometer, Lunge's, 186, 194
Nitrous acid, estimation for, in sulphuric
acid, 185

Nitrous acid, detection of very small
quantities, 142
In commercial nitric acid, 201,
202
Nordhansen oil of vitriol, specific gnvi*
ties, 180
at different temperatures, 181
fiising points, 188
percentage of SOj in, 184
analysis, 148
Normal acid and alkali, etc. See Staod-
ard

Oil of vrrBiOL. See Nordhansen oH of

vitriol
Ore, sampling of, 247
Orsat apparatus, 97
Orsat-Lunge apparatus, 100
Oxalic acid, standard solution, 247
Oxygen in chamber gases, 117
in coal-gas, 222

PKBOKirTAOl COMPOSITION OF 00MP0DKD6,

4
Ferchlorates, 196

Permanganate solution, standard, 244
Phosphates, 228
Phosphoric acid, soluble, 229, 280

total, 229, 280
Portland cement, 286
raw materials, 286
working conditions, 288
commercial, 288
Potash, chlorate of, 168
Potassium, estimation, 308
carbonate, commercial, 205
specific gravities of solutions, 207
influence of temperature, 210
chloride, 208, 206
salts, 208
sulphate, 206

hydroxide, specific gravities, 212
nitrate in commercial nitrate of soda*

196
permanganate, standard solution, 344
Pressure of gases, reduction to normal, 42
of water, reduction to mercurial pres-
sure, 68
Producer gas, 99
Purifying material of gas-works, 325

water, reagents for, 107
Puzzuolanas, 289
Pyrites, 110
burnt, 118

INDEX

261

Pyrites, barner gases, 116

sampling, 247
Pyrometer, Le Ghatelier's, 105

Wanner's, 106

indications of, 87

Quartz in cement, 287

Reich's test for burner oases, 116
Bock-salt, 146
Roman cement, 289

Salt, common and rock-, 146

sampling, 247
Saltcake, 146
Salts, fished, in caastic-soda manaJbc-

tnre, 190
Salts, solubility of, 18, 19
Sampling, rules for, 247

anger, 249
Seger's anemometer, 104
Seleninm, in brimstone, 109

in sulphuric acid, 142
Sheet metals, weight, 89
Silica in cement, 287
Silver solution, standard, 246
Slags, 289

Soda, available. Bee Alkali
ash, commercial, 176
manufacture by Leblanc process,
164
raw materials for, 164
by ammonia process, 188
caustic, manuftcture, 184. See Sodium
hydroxide and Standard alkali
Sodium arsenite, standard solution, 246
carbonate solutions, specific gravities
of, at 16% 172; at 80% 178
influence of temperature, 174
pure, for standardising, 241
hydroxide, 166
specific gravities, 185
influence of temperature, 188
Sodium salts In commercial potassium
chloride, 204
silicate, 177
Solubility of gases in water, 20
of salts at 0° and 100% 18
at various temperatures, 19
Solutions of salts, specific gravity, 27
Specific gravities, of solids, 24
of gases, 16
of liquids, 27
of saturated solutions, 27

Specific gravities, comparison of hydrom-
eters, 264
heats, 69
Spent oxide of gas-works, 109, 225
Standard solutions, general, 289

comparison of Bnglish and French

systems, 240
influence of temperature on, 244
acid, 241
alkali, 248
permanganate, 244
iodine, 245
sodium arsenite, 246
silver, 246
copper, 247
oxalic acid, 247
Starch solution, 245
Steam-boilers, feed- water, 106
Storage weights of substances, 26
Sulphate of soda, 147
Sulphide of sodium, 166, 176
Sulphur, in ftiel, 96
in mixing coal, 164
in brimstone, 108
in pyrites, 110
in burnt pyrites, 118
in blende, 114
in cinders firom blende, 114
in tank waste, 167, 180
in gas-liquor, 216
in spent oxide, 225
specific gravities of solutions of, in

carbon bisulphide, 109
acids of, in chamber gases, 118
compounds, in soda liquors, 171
dioxide in chamber gases, 116

in hydrochloric acid, 152
recovery from tank waste, 180
Sulphur compounds, various, in Leblauc

liquors, 171
Sulphuric acid, ordinary, quantitative
examination of free acid, 185
examination for nitrous acid, 185

for total nitrogen acids, 186
relative proportions of, 149
qualitative test for, 141
other impurities, 142
manufacture, raw materials, 108
gases, 116
Sulphuric acid, specific gravities at 60° F. ,
120
reduction to other temperatures, 126
fireezing and melting points, 182
boiling points, 182

262

INDEX

Sulphuric acid, fusing points of, and of
Nordhausen oil of vitriol, 188
mixtures with nitric acid, 202
fuming. Bee Nordhausen oil of
vitriol
anhydride, analysis, 148
sampling, 260
Bulphurimeter, Chancers, 109
Symbols of compounds, 4

Tank liquor, 168
waste, 167, 180

Temperature, reduction of gases to nor-
mal, 88

Temperatures, high, measured by pyrom-
eter, 87
measurement of, 104

Tension of aqueous vapour at various
temperatures, 64, 66, 67

Thermometers, conversion of Centigrade
into Fahrenheit degrees above 100°,
and vice versa, 81

Thermometric scales, comparison, Centi-
grade degrees as units, 29
Fahrenheit degrees as units, 80
above 100% 81

Thiocyanate, 216

Thomas-slag phosphates, 229

Trass, 289*

Twaddell'shydrometer, 261

Vapours, density of, 16

Vat liquor, 168
waste, 167

Vitriol chambers. See Chambers

Volume of gases, reduction to normal
temperature and pressure, 88

Volumes of water at different tempera-
tures, 68

Waknxb's pybomktxr, 106
Water, hardness, temporary, 106
totel, 107
pressure, reduction to mercurial pres.

sure, 68
volumes at different temperatures, 58
vapours, tension of, 64, 66, 67
boiling points at various pressures, 59
reagents for purifying, 107
Weight of sheet metals, 89

of substances as stored, 26
Weights and measures of different coun-
tries, 81
reducing English to metrical, and vice
versay 86
Weldon mud and liquors, 164

Zinc in pyritbs, 112
in blende, 114
in sulphate of alumina, 286
blende, 114
cinders from, 116 ^\^

P&IMTXD BY OUVER AND BOYD, KDINBUROH

.r

AK INITIAL FINE OF 26 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN
TKtS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH
DAY AND TO SI.OO ON THE SKVKNTH 1

m 8

ilMOlSApr-i

REC'D LD

DEC 14 1942

APR 1 1«a

™ 6 1946

6Jlin' 5 5BB

JUn6- i^i5L:i

JUN 5 1956 g

] , n l \' '"SO

•usf.

LD21-100m-7,'aO(4